Troubled galaxy Destroyed dreams, Chapter 295
Palash Biswas
Indo-Nepalese relations
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India-Nepal relations | |
India | Nepal |
Relations between India and Nepal are close yet fraught with difficulties stemming from geography, economics, the problems inherent in big power-small power relations, and common ethnic, linguistic and cultural identities that overlap the two countries' borders. New Delhi and Kathmandu initiated their intertwined relationship with the 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship and accompanying letters that defined security relations between the two countries, and an agreement governing both bilateral trade and trade transiting Indian soil. The 1950 treaty and letters stated that "neither government shall tolerate any threat to the security of the other by a foreign aggressor" and obligated both sides "to inform each other of any serious friction or misunderstanding with any neighboring state likely to cause any breach in the friendly relations subsisting between the two governments." These accords cemented a "special relationship" between India and Nepal that granted Nepal preferential economic treatment and provided Nepalese in India the same economic and educational opportunities as Indian citizens.
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[edit] Independent political history
[edit] 1950- 1970
In the 1950s, Nepal welcomed close relations with India, but as the number of Nepalese living and working in India increased and the involvement of India in Nepal's economy deepened in the 1960s and after, so too did Nepalese discomfort with the special relationship. Tensions came to a head in the mid-1970s, when Nepal pressed for substantial amendments in its favor in the trade and transit treaty and openly criticized India's 1975 annexation of Sikkim which was considered as part of Greater Nepal. In 1975 King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev proposed that Nepal be recognized internationally as a zone of peace; he received support from China and Pakistan. In New Delhi's view, if the king's proposal did not contradict the 1950 treaty and was merely an extension of nonalignment, it was unnecessary; if it was a repudiation of the special relationship, it represented a possible threat to India's security and could not be endorsed. In 1984 Nepal repeated the proposal, but there was no reaction from India. Nepal continually promoted the proposal in international forums, with Chinese support; by 1990 it had won the support of 112 countries.
[edit] 1970- 1980
In 1978 India agreed to separate trade and transit treaties, satisfying a long-term Nepalese demand. In 1988, when the two treaties were up for renewal, Nepal's refusal to accommodate India's wishes on the transit treaty caused India to call for a single trade and transit treaty. Thereafter, Nepal took a hard-line position that led to a serious crisis in India-Nepal relations. After two extensions, the two treaties expired on March 23, 1989, resulting in a virtual Indian economic blockade of Nepal that lasted until late April 1990. Although economic issues were a major factor in the two countries' confrontation, Indian dissatisfaction with Nepal's 1988 acquisition of Chinese weaponry played an important role. New Delhi perceived the arms purchase as an indication of Kathmandu's intent to build a military relationship with Beijing, in violation of the 1950 treaty and letters exchanged in 1959 and 1965, which included Nepal in India's security zone and precluded arms purchases without India's approval. India linked security with economic relations and insisted on reviewing India-Nepal relations as a whole. Nepal had to back down after worsening economic conditions led to a change in Nepal's political system, in which the king was forced to institute a parliamentary democracy. The new government sought quick restoration of amicable relations with India.
[edit] 1990s
The special security relationship between New Delhi and Kathmandu was reestablished during the June 1990 New Delhi meeting of Nepal's prime minister Krishna Prasad Bhattarai and Indian prime minister V.P. Singh. During the December 1991 visit to India by Nepalese prime minister Girija Prasad Koirala, the two countries signed new, separate trade and transit treaties and other economic agreements designed to accord Nepal additional economic benefits.
Indian-Nepali relations appeared to be undergoing still more reassessment when Nepal's prime minister Man Mohan Adhikary visited New Delhi in April 1995 and insisted on a major review of the 1950 peace and friendship treaty. In the face of benign statements by his Indian hosts relating to the treaty, Adhikary sought greater economic independence for his landlocked nation while simultaneously striving to improve ties with China.
[edit] 21st Century
In 2005, after King Gyanendra took over, Nepalese relations with India soured. However, after the restoration of democracy, in 2008, Prachanda, the Prime Minister of Nepal, visited India, in September 2008. He spoke about a new dawn, in the bilateral relations, between the two countries. He said, "I am going back to Nepal as a satisfied person. I will tell Nepali citizens back home that a new era has dawned. Time has come to effect a revolutionary change in bilateral relations. On behalf of the new government, I assure you that we are committed to make a fresh start." He met Indian Prime minister, Manmohan Singh, and Foreign Minister, Pranab Mukherjee. He asked India to help Nepal frame a new constitution, and to invest in Nepal's infrastructure, and its tourism industry.
In 2008, Indo-Nepali ties got a further boost with an agreement to resume water talks after a 4 year hiatus.[1] The Nepalese Water Resources Secretary Shanker Prasad Koirala said the Nepal-India Joint Committee on Water Resources meet decided to start the reconstruction of breached Kosi embankment after the water level goes down.[2] During the Nepal PM's visit to New Delhi in September the two Prime Ministers expressed satisfaction at the age-old close, cordial and extensive relationships between their states and expressed their support and cooperation to further consolidate the relationship.
The two issued a 22-point statement highlighting the need to review, adjust and update the 1950 Treaty of Peace and Friendship, amongst other agreements. India would also provide a credit line of up to 150 crore rupees to Nepal to ensure uninterrupted supplies of petroleum products, as well as lift bans on the export of rice, wheat, maize, sugar and sucrose for quantities agreed to with Nepal. India would also provide 20 crore as immediate flood relief.
In return, Nepal will take measures for the "promotion of investor friendly, enabling business environment to encourage Indian...investments in Nepal."
Furthermore, a three-tier mechanism at the level of ministerial, secretary and technical levels will be built to push forward discussions on the development of water resources between the two sides.[3] Politically, India acknowledged a willingness to promote efforts towards peace in Nepal. Indian External affairs minister Pranab Mukherjee promised the Nepali Prime Minister Prachanda that he would "extend all possible help for peace and development."[4]
In 2008, the Bollywood film Chandni Chowk to China was banned in Nepal, because of a scene suggesting the Gautama Buddha was born in India.[5] Some protesters called for commercial boycott of all Indian films.[6]
[edit] References
- ^ India-Nepal water talks resume after four years
- ^ http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200810011908.htm
- ^ http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-09/17/content_10061787.htm
- ^ http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?sectionName=&id=c4a73df7-358d-4aab-87f0-39f8aee6c811&&Headline=India+to+help+restore+peace+in+Nepal
- ^ Bollywood movie banned in Nepal
- ^ India is Buddha's birthplace in Chandni..., Nepal fumes
- "Library of Congress Country Studies". U.S. Library of Congress (released in public domain). http://countrystudies.us/india/126.htm. Retrieved on 2007-10-06.
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July 20th 2009. - Kathmandu, Nepal – The ongoing central committee meeting of UCPN-Maoist has been canceled on Monday again due to differences over the parties' future strategy. According to the source close to the meeting central committee member loyal with Mohan Baiddha Kiran faction have insisted that the political document should be corrected by incorporating the need of people's revolt. However, Party spokesperson just said that the meeting has been postponed due to debate has been prolonged on the report presented by the party chairman Pushpa Kamal Dahal.
Public vehicle not to ply in Bagmati zone from Friday
Member secretary of National Sports Council Shrestha resigned from the post
Nepali police destroyed chicks due to fears of bird flu
Garbage dispute emerged again in Nepal's capital Kathmandu
Nepal Prime Minister sees communist extremism emerged in the country
Normal Life paralyzes due to TJSC protest
Nepal's president calls everyone for national unity
CA meeting put off for indefinite period
Ethnic-based politics could lead the nation in to disaster: NC President Koirala
Government declares public holiday for Wednesday
http://www.reviewnepal.com/more_news.php?id=1345
Maoism and Terrorism |
When the Indian government banned the Communist Party of India (Maoist) last month, June 22 to be precise, it would have very well known the consequences of the decision. As such the alleged death threats issued on Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Congress leader Sonia Gandhi by the CPI (Maoist) recently do not necessary come as a bolt from the blue to the power centre though it has shaken a few outside. Notwithstanding the fact how seriously one should take the press release allegedly issued by a sub-zonal commander of the group in West Bengal, one cannot undermine the strength of the party that has spread its wings across half of the territory of India. It was this knowledge that prompted Premier Manmohan Singh a few months ago to dub CPI (Maoist) as the biggest internal security threat to India. Accused of series of killings of local level politicians, policemen, government officials and businessmen the group has a very strong presence in Bihar, Andra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh where it operates behind nearly thirty odd front organizations. If one is to take Maoism in its purest sense – revolutionary struggle by peasants, mainly farmers against exploitation by state structures and classes - Indian Maoism easily fits well into the mould. Almost all its front groups are based in the agrarian countryside. In Madhya Pradesh it has the support of an influential section of tribal people as well. In that sense the support base of Indian Maoism is yet to be corrupted as one practiced in Nepal, Peru and even Philippines where they have acquired shades of Marxism by annexing large chunks of urban working class population to the movements. If it struck to its localized ideology, the Maoists in India would have still mustered a much stronger base of supporters. However, today the party has too many external links that its agenda is often questioned by many. Many peasant leaders of the CPI (Maoist) have started feeling that they are losing the grip they had on the party. The perception of the informed analysts is that just like the way that India attempts to have a hold on many of its neighbours, its neighbours are now trying to control India through the Maoist movement. The resignation of Nepal's Maoist Prime Minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal popularly known as Prachanda in May has dimmed perhaps the last ray of hope for many who thought at least his presence as premier would instill a hope among vulnerable rural peasants in India that such a power transformation is possible at least at local level. The fate of the Maoists in Nepal especially that of Prachanda, has triggered a strong sense of disillusionment among Maoists all over the world that there's no point in compromising principles for the sake of peace. On the otherhand anti-Maoist movements organized by the Congress government during the last few years in a bid to drive a wedge between militant Maoists, generally known as Naxalites, and vulnerable peasants have also failed miserably. The most popular among those the much hyped Salwa Judum movement in the State of Chhattisgarh which initially managed to attract a large number of civilians too failed to keep the momentum later. The Congress government can dismiss the latest warning of LTTE style attacks on Singh and Gandhi as stray comments yet the fact remains that the tainted version of Maoism now practiced in India has become a serious threat to Indian democracy. |
Nepal: child soldiers demobilized
Submitted by WW4 Report on Mon, 07/20/2009 - 23:44.Under UN auspices, Nepal has started freeing an estimated 3,000 child soldiers from camps holding former Maoist guerilla fighters. Demobilization of the child soldiers, and their transfer to rehabilitation programs, is a key part of Nepal's peace process. The UN welcomed the move as a "significant milestone" for the Himalayan nation.
Maoist guerillas ended a 10-year insurgency in November 2006, signing a peace deal that brought them into the government. They won the most votes in 2008 elections, but left the government earlier this year in a row over their leader's attempt to fire the army chief. Some 24,000 former fighters have been confined to UN-monitored camps since the peace deal. Of these, the UN has identified about 3,000 as being under the age of 18. (BBC News, July 17
Return to violence feared
When Maoist leader Pushpa Kamal Dahal (Prachanda) stood for prime minister last August, his party declared it a "golden dawn" for Nepal after 10 years of war. The unpopular monarchy had just been abolished, and the revolutionary leader's transformation from warlord to elected premier was hailed as a new beginning for the nation. But a coalition of rival parties took power following the fall of the Maoists in May over the issue of integrating their fighters into the army—a key tenet of the 2006 peace agreement. The UN warned this month of an "alarming" rise in kidnappings for ransom in Nepal, saying the volatile political situation and absence of authority across much of the country allow criminals to act with impunity. (AFP, July 20)
eats in the district of Mugu | ||
With Maoists warning it against acquiring arms from India, Nepal government today said it is seeking only logistic support from New Delhi for its army and not "lethal" military hardware.
"We do not intend to seek any lethal military hardware from India, but only logistic support," Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal was quoted as saying by his political adviser Raghu Pant.
However, Pant said that during a telephonic conversation between Maoist chief Prachanda and the Prime Minister on July 21, the matter regarding Defence Minister Vidya Bhandari request to India for arms supply did not figure.
India has decided to lift a self-imposed bar on arms supplies to Nepal and will resume its cheap sale of rifles and ammunition to the Himalayan nation's military despite protests from the Opposition Maoists.
Defence ministry sources said today that India would resume supplying Insas rifles with ammunition, re-start joint training programmes and recruitment of Gorkhas from Nepal into the Indian Army.
The decisions were conveyed to visiting Nepal defence minister Bidya Devi Bhandari who met defence minister A.K. Antony yesterday. Bhandari is on an official tour to India and is also here for medical treatment.
In Kathmandu, the news that India was resuming its subsidised supply of arms to the Nepalese army immediately angered the Maoists whose chief, Prachanda, urged Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal to shelve the move. Prachanda interpreted the supply of arms to the army as a threat to the peace process in his country.
India suspended supplying arms to the Nepal Army — then the Royal Nepal Army — in 2005. The RNA till then was overwhelmingly dependent on Indian military aid and training. The RNA's main task was to take the fight to the Maoists.
But since then the tumult has seen the Maoists leading the government and now they are in the Opposition. Nepal itself has transformed from a kingdom to a republic.
India has its own compulsion to restoring military ties and its special relations with Nepal. Officials in the Indian security establishment noted with concern the growing influence of China in Sri Lanka after India turned down requests for firearms from the island nation.
An expansion of Chinese influence in Nepal after the Maoists have gained legitimacy is strategically undesirable for New Delhi.
But the Indian Army's standard issue weapon — the Insas rifle — that was supplied to the RNA became, for large sections of Nepal's people, a symbol of Indian hegemony. When India stopped supplies, Kathmandu scoured the world market for arms and once even advertised in its state-run newspaper.
India and Nepal have a special Arms Assistance Treaty that the Maoists oppose. India frowns on Nepal's efforts to procure arms from third countries.
Former Nepal prime minister and current opposition leader Pushpa Kamal Dahal Prachanda has asked the new government of Nepal not to resume buying arms from India, warning that it would hit the ongoing peace negotiations adversely.
Prachanda, whose Maoist party fought a 10-year battle to overthrow Nepal's constitutional monarchy, has asked Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal not to seek fresh military assistance from India, Prachanda's aide Samir Dahal told IANS.
The Maoist supremo's objection came after Nepal's Defence Minister Vidya Bhandari met her Indian counterpart A.K. Antony in New Delhi Tuesday.
Bhandari, currently on a week-long visit to New Delhi, is said to have broached the subject of renewed arms and training assistance by the Indian government.
During the Maoist "People's War", India had provided Nepal with its indigenously manufactured Insas group of firearms as well as other military assistance at a 70 percent subsidy in a bid to contain the insurgency.
However, after Nepal's King Gyanendra tried to grab absolute power with the backing of the Royal Nepal Army in 2005, India suspended military assistance as a mark of its anger.
Prachanda telephoned Nepal Tuesday night to point out that the resumption of arms sale would be a violation of the comprehensive peace agreement signed between the Maoists and Nepal's major parties in 2006, which ended the insurgency.
"The integration of the Maoist combatants with the Nepal army, as pledged in the peace pact, is yet to be done," Prachanda told the prime minister.
"To buy arms at this juncture would affect the peace process and hamper the drafting of a new constitution."
The fate of about 19,000 fighters of the Maoists' People's Liberation Army remains uncertain.
The fighters have been languishing in cantonments with their proposed merger with the army being opposed by the parties now as well as the chief of the army, Gen Rookmangud Katawal.
This month, the government said it would start the task of freeing over 4,000 disqualified PLA fighters, including nearly 3,000 child soldiers.
However, though the government said the discharged fighters' rehabilitation would be complete by Nov 2, the process could run into trouble with the combatants demanding to be employed in the security sector.
Former prime minister and chairman of the Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) (UCPN-M) Prachanda has strongly objected to the government's request to India to resume the supply of arms, which had been put on hold since the February 2005 royal takeover, local newspaper The Kathmandu Post reported on Thursday.
"If Defense Minister Bidhya Bhandari makes a deal with India to resume arms supplies while the peace process is still on, it will effectively imply that the peace process has come to an end," the newspaper quoted Prachanda as saying on Wednesday, "This could lead to bloodshed in the country and the current government will be responsible for untoward incidents that could follow."
The former prime minister said so commenting on the possible resumption of arms supply from New Delhi. During a meeting with her Indian counterpart A.K. Antony and Foreign Minister S.M. Krishna in New Delhi, capital of India, on Tuesday, "Bhandrai had asked for resumption of arms assistance to Nepal," according to the report.
"The Indian ministers had assured that India was ready to assist Nepal as per the country's needs," the report read.
"I asked them to continue assistance in the military sector in the same way as they are helping us in health and education," Bhandari told The Kathmandu Post in New Delhi on Tuesday.
Also on Thursday, state-run newspaper The Rising Nepal reported that Energy Minister Prakash Sharan Mahat on Wednesday said the government would import arms if it deemed it necessary for the security of the country.
"Import of arms depends on the need of the country and the government will take a decision considering the security situation of the country," Minister Mahat said speaking at the Reporters' Club Nepal in capital Kathmandu. "He, however, clarified that no decision had been taken so far to bring in arms," the report said.
UCPN-M central leader Top Bahadur Rayamajhi, on the same occasion, countered Minister Mahat saying the government activities invited confrontation in the country and could sabotage the ongoing peace process.
Eager to counter China's strategic inroads into Nepal, India has promised to bolster defence cooperation with the Himalayan country,
This came after visiting Nepal defence minister Bidya Devi Bhandari, leading a 10-member delegation, held talks with her Indian counterpart A K Antony and other top military brass on Tuesday.
The recruitment of Nepalis in Indian Army's Gorkha Rifles also figured in the talks. The earlier strife engulfing Nepal ensured no recruitment rallies were held for the purpose since September 2006.
It was only in February-March this year that the Indian Army once again began the process, with rallies in Dharan (eastern Nepal) and Pokhara (central Nepal), attracting over 15,000 applicants.
There are over 30,000 Nepali Gorkhas currently serving in Indian Army's seven Gorkha Rifles (Ist, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 8th, 9th and 11th), each of which has five to six battalions, and some paramilitary forces.
India, of course, had been caught off-balance after the Maoists emerged victorious in Nepal's constituent assembly elections and Pushpa Kamal Dahal `Prachanda' was sworn in as the PM last year.
With the Maoists tilting clearly towards China, India had to then scramble to engage them in `a constructive manner'. The situation, of course, is yet to settle down fully in Kathmandu following Prachanda's resignation after failing to sack Nepal Army chief General Rookmangud Katawal in a power struggle with President Ram Baran Yadav.
The Chairman of the Maoist Party, Pushpa Kamal Dahal alias Prachanda has asked Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal not to make any agreement for the import of arms and ammunitions from India.
Dahal, say sources, also told the prime minister over telephonic conversation that the defense support from India to the Nepal Army would have definitely an adverse impact on the peace process.
Source further disclose that Mr. Dahal repeatedly asked the Prime Minister not to go against the peace process.
"The government and the prime minister will be entirely responsible for derailing the peace process if weapons were imported from India", Dahal told the prime minister.
"Nepal's government approach made to India during Defense minister's visit must be stopped", Dahal's press advisor, Om Sharma quoted Dahal as saying.
It was earlier reported that an irritated India, mainly by the proximity of the Nepal Maoists towards China, had told the visiting Nepal's Minister for Defense that it will continue the defense support that was disrupted at time of the unyielding Nepal's monarch Gyanendra Shah.
However, Prime Minister Nepal maintained that Nepal was not buying weapons for the Nepal Army but India has heeded to Nepal's request to provide continuity to the disrupted defense support.
He also told Prachanda not to get panicked, sources disclose.
During the one hour long conversation with Pushpa Kamal Dahal, PM Nepal also requested Dahal to forget the bitter past as they have common objectives of drafting the constitution and concluding the peace process.
"Our serious attention has been drawn towards the possibility of failure of peace process due to the possible import of arms from India", said Narayan Kaji Shrestha, senior Maoist leader.
Shrestha made these remarks while talking to one of the daily newspapers in Kathmandu.
Top Bahadur Rayamajhi, another senior Maoist leader opined that it was a grand design to push the country into the track drafted by the reactionary forces.
Nepal to rebuild royal massacre house
Eight years after Nepal's crown prince gunned down most of his royal family, the government is to rebuild the house where the massacre took place, the prime minister's spokesman said on Thursday.
The house, part of a sprawling palace complex in central Kathmandu, was demolished after the June 2001 massacre in which crown prince Dipendra killed the king and queen before apparently turning his gun on himself.
Now Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal has ordered that the house be rebuilt inside the complex, which was turned into a museum after former king Gyanendra stepped down last year.
"The prime minister has ordered that it be rebuilt in the original style so that visitors can see what it looked like," said spokesman Bishnu Rijal, suggesting it could be used to display information about the massacre.
An official investigation concluded that Dipendra gunned down his relatives in a drink- and drugs-fuelled rage after being prevented from marrying the woman he loved.
But many people in Nepal do not believe the official line, and the country's Maoist former prime minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal had promised a fresh investigation before he resigned from the post in May.
Prime Minister Nepal said late on Wednesday a new investigation should be held, but that his priority was the writing of the country's new constitution.
Deteriorating Scenario of Nepal by Dirgha Raj Prasai | |
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Nepalese democratic exercise faced the black period in between 2005-2009. During the period, Nepalese people tolerated the worst political practice made by corrupt leaders. The nation achieved the climaxed height of the lawlessness, theft, robbery, ransom and murders. The corruption is out of control. Nobody is responsible to control the corruption. A corrupt tendency has been institutionalizing as a system. Several constitutional authorities including the Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority (CIAA) and the administrative mechanism have been paralyzed. The security forces themselves remain demoralized. Nobody can trust on these culprit leaders. Though freedom of speech is one of the basic pillars of democracy, no one is free to speak and write critically in true sense. Experiences are the proofs to reveal that all the political leaders invested their time and energy just for power and to accumulate big chunk of money, land, home and expensive vehicles. Their amassed properties in the name of democracy are hidden in different banks, lands, big houses and business. They are beyond the reality that the people might be fooled for a moment with the political dishonesty, but not for ever. Democracy has been abused as a ladder for power by the anti-nationalist political leaders. Nepal is passing through the most dangerous times in history. Government has two mechanisms: political & administrative, which ultimately manage and deliver service to the public by mobilizing the resources of the country. The trained human resources in the administration are becoming defunct. But, in Nepal the government is not accountable towards the people. Nepalese people are divided in many groups due to communal slogans and ethic-based federalism put by the corrupted leaders of Nepal. 'Unity among the diversities' is the theme of Nepalese nationalism. People of different geographical regions via plains, hills and high mountains have their respective cultural identities which reflect the united nationality of Nepal. The Nepalese people are reluctant to live under the shadow of guns, rather they want peace. They want relief from the drudge of their lives. UNMIN have been very irresponsible and they, following the hints of India, are bent on making this country a 'failed state'. It is a matter of deep regret that the UN representatives, American ambassador, European Union an others have made a great mistake in supporting the republic, secularism, interim constitution, so-called interim parliament and the council of minister. Opposing attempt to abolish monarchy that has remained the basis of this country assessment of the geography, geo-political situation and ethnic sensitivity for so long and to try to establish a federal state based on ethnicity indicates the bad omen of the break-up of the country. The despotic leaders and Nepali Congress, UML and the Maoist party has no right to sink this country. Nepal is a land-locked country between the two power giants- China & India and multi-ethnic nation where no group is in majority, but the Nepalese monarchy can get only along with people of all regions and ethnic backgrounds irrespective of their culture, language, political affiliations and caste. Therefore, there is no alternate that all the nationalist forces including the King should protect the country. Email: \n dirgharajprasai@gmail.comThis e-mail address is being protected from spambots, you need JavaScript enabled to view it |
More World News
KATHMANDU — When Maoist leader Pushpa Kamal Dahal stood for prime minister last August, his party pronounced it a "golden dawn" for Nepal after 10 years of civil war.
Nepal's unpopular monarchy had just been abolished, and the revolutionary leader's transformation from warlord to democratically elected premier was hailed as a fresh start for the Himalayan nation.
But less than a year later, the sun has set on the Maoist government and the prospects for peace and prosperity in Nepal look as distant as ever.
A coalition of rival parties took power following the fall of the Maoists in May over the issue of integrating their fighters into the army -- a key tenet of the 2006 peace agreement.
But without the support of the biggest party in the parliament, the new administration is struggling to tackle crippling fuel and food shortages, rampant corruption and growing fears over security.
The United Nations warned this month of an "alarming" rise in kidnappings for ransom in Nepal, saying the volatile political situation and absence of surveillance mechanisms were allowing criminals to act with impunity.
Daily life in many parts of the country has been heavily impacted by protest strikes, some of them violent, hampering efforts to rebuild a country still struggling to recover from the long civil war.
More than three years after the war ended, the head of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs in Nepal, Wendy Cue, said little had changed for many people.
"A lack of development was both the cause and the consequence of the conflict," she told AFP.
"Three years on, people are still waiting for the peace dividend."
A diarrhoea epidemic that has killed more than 100 people in recent weeks in a remote part of western Nepal due to a lack of clean water and basic medical facilities has highlighted the huge challenge the new government faces.
The first reports of the outbreak were in May, but emergency teams were not dispatched to the area until July, prompting accusations of government mismanagement.
Commentators say the political infighting that followed the fall of the Maoist-led government has focused attention on events in the capital at the expense of the isolated rural areas that suffered most during the war.
"What we have here is a crisis of governance -- a weak state that has no control over much of the country," said Aditya Adhikari, comment editor of the Kathmandu Post daily.
Adhikari pointed to a subsequent radicalisation of groups representing ethnic minorities outside Kathmandu that have long felt excluded from national politics.
"Groups in the Terai have already begun to form parallel systems of governance and semi-militant forces," he said, referring to the southern part of Nepal worst hit by ethnic unrest in recent years.
"The current government hasn't the legitimacy to address their concerns because it excludes the Maoists, and the ethnic groups are themselves sceptical of negotiations with this government," he added.
The Terai is important because it runs along the border with Nepal's main trading partner, India, and is home to 48 percent of the country's population as well as the bulk of its industry and food production.
The World Bank in its latest report on Nepal warned of a proliferation of armed groups in the Terai in the past two years and said the resulting violence had caused many government officials to retreat to district headquarters.
"There is a danger that tensions between diverse political and social groups in the Terai could deteriorate," it said in the report released last month.
"If that occurs, the damage to Nepal's main trading routes, investment and livelihoods could be far worse than during the 'People's War', which was largely concentrated in Nepal's hill regions."
The government has pledged to strengthen law and order, and the new budget this week provided more funding for the country's historically weak police force.
It also promised to alleviate poverty in a country where the average annual income is just 473 dollars and tackle double-digit inflation and an energy crisis that led to power outages of 16 hours a day in the capital this winter.
But many here believe little can be achieved without the involvement of the Maoists, who have already said they will oppose the new government's plans.
There are also increasing international concerns over the lack of progress in the peace process, launched when the war ended in 2006.
The mandate of the UN Mission in Nepal, charged with overseeing the peace process, expires on July 23 and is expected to be extended for a further six months at the request of the Nepalese government.
But there is little sign of any progress on the highly sensitive issue of integrating 19,000 Maoist fighters still confined to camps into the army.
"There was an expectation that the difficult part was going to be holding the election," said Sarah Levit-Shore, Nepal country director for the Carter Center NGO which provided international observers for the 2008 polls.
"Instead, the country has seen new challenges, and the need for parties to work together in good faith is critical."
Prachanda
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Prachanda प्रचण्ड | |
| |
---|---|
In office 18 August 2008 – 25 May 2009 | |
President | Ram Baran Yadav |
Preceded by | Girija Prasad Koirala |
Succeeded by | Madhav Kumar Nepal |
| |
Born | 11 December 1954 (1954-12-11) Kaski, Nepal |
Political party | CPN (Maoist) |
Residence | Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal |
Website | http://www.ppmo.gov.np/ |
Prachanda (Nepali: प्रचण्ड, pronounced [pɾətsəɳɖə]; born Chhabilal Dahal on 11 December 1954, later Pushpa Kamal Dahal[1]) is a Nepalese politician. He was the Prime Minister of Nepal from 18 August 2008, to 25 May 2009. A communist revolutionary, politician, and former guerrilla leader, he is the Chairman of the Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)—the largest political party in Nepal, according to the results of the 2008 election. Under his leadership, the CPN (M) launched the Nepalese Civil War on 13 February 1996, in which about 13,000 people died in fighting between the party and the government.[2]
Prachanda's extension of Marxism-Leninism-Maoism to take specific account of Nepal's situation is known as the Prachanda Path. "Prachanda" is a party name along the lines of "Lenin" and "Hồ Chí Minh". "Prachanda" literally means "Intense".
The Constituent Assembly elected Prachanda as Prime Minister on 15 August 2008.[3] He was sworn in as Prime Minister on 18 August 2008.[4] Prachanda resigned from the post on 4 May 2009 after his move to sack General Rookmangud Katawal, the army chief, was opposed by President Ram Baran Yadav.[5] He remained in office until 23 May 2009, when his successor was elected.[6]
Contents[hide] |
[edit] Personal life and early career
Prachanda was born in Dhikure Pokhari, a in the Kaski District,[7] some 140 kilometres (87 mi) west of Nepal's capital Kathmandu.[8][9][10] Prachanda spent much of his childhood in the Chitwan district. He received a Bachelor of Science in Agriculture (BSc-Ag) from the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS) in Rampur, Chitwan, and was once employed at a rural development project sponsored by USAID, the project site being Jajarkot.[11]
Moved by witnessing severe poverty among Nepalis, he has said, Prachanda was drawn to leftist political parties in his youth. In 1981 he joined the underground Communist Party of Nepal (Fourth Convention).[12] He became general secretary (party leader) of the Communist Party of Nepal (Mashal) in 1989. After a number of permutations, this party became the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist). He lived underground even after the restoration of democracy in 1990. Until then a little-known figure, he controlled the clandestine wing of the party, while the parliamentary representation in the United People's Front was headed by Dr. Baburam Bhattarai. Since 1996, Prachanda has become internationally known as the leader of CPN (M), presiding over its military and political wings. The first biography on Nepal's Maoist Prime Minister, Prachanda: The Unknown Revolutionary, has been written by Indian journalist Anirban Roy, the Nepal correspondent of the Hindustan Times. Published by Mandala Book Point, Kathmandu, the book was released on September 19, 2008 by Chairman of Nepal's Constituent Assembly, Subhas Nembwang. The book has brought to fore Prachanda's 25-year-long underground life. The best-selling book is the result of talks with nearly 200 people who know the Maoist leader closely, ranging from his father, wife and children to comrades and politicians. The book has also been translated in Nepali---Prachanda: Ek Agyat Bidhrohi.
[edit] Maoist insurrection
Communism in Nepal |
On 4 February 1996, Bhattarai gave the government, led by Nepali Congress Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba, a list of 40 demands, threatening civil war if they were not met. The demands related to "nationalism, democracy and livelihood" and included such line items as the "domination of foreign capital in Nepali industries, business and finance should be stopped", and "discriminatory treaties, including the 1950 Nepal-India Treaty, should be abrogated", and "land under the control of the feudal system should be confiscated and distributed to the landless and the homeless."[13] After that, and until 26 April 2006, Prachanda directed the military efforts of the CPN (M) towards establishing areas of control, particularly in the mountainous regions and western Nepal.
The 40 demands were whittled down to 24 in subsequent political negotiations.[14]
[edit] Relation with Dr. Baburam Bhattarai
In late 2004 or early 2005, relations between Prachanda and Baburam Bhattarai soured.[15] This was reportedly due to disagreement on power sharing inside the party. Bhattarai was unhappy with the consolidation of power under Prachanda. At one point Prachanda expelled Bhattarai from the party, though he was later reinstated.[16] They later reconciled at least some of their differences.[17][18]
CPN (Maoist), after the king's direct exercise over the government on 1 February 2005, met with serious discussion over the future policy of the party. Until then, Comrade Prachanda, Comrade Kiran and others were convinced that they would be able to rise to power having dialogue with the king's government. Senior leader Dr. Bhattarai refused this idea of the party since it came into discussion in the party. He insisted joining hands with other parties of the 'mainstream' politics. He put the view of working together with other parties to abolish monarchy in the nation and stressed that it is high time to work with other parties to abolish the monarchy and establish a republic. He stated that the party should move ahead with a strategy of democratic republic and multiparty system for a time being as the other parties wouldn't accept a people's republic immediately. The majority of the other senior leaders had refused his opinion in the beginning including Chairman Prachanda and had made a decision to work together with the king.
Dr. Bhattarai including his supporters were punished and suspended for putting a view against the party decision. But after the King's proclamation on 1 February 2005, the party realized that the policy they acquainted with was a wrong one. Immediately Dr. Bhattarai was released off his punishment and in a meeting held at Chunbang (a village in Rolpa), the party held discussion of Bhattarai's idea. After which the party came forward with a strategy of democratic republic rather than a people's republic. Dr. Bhattarai's work-strategy has worked out till date, which put forward the party as a major key holder of the nation's politics. Chairman Prachanda and Dr. Bhattarai seem at one side keeping some disagreement with the work strategy with the other senior leader Mohan Vaidya alias Kiran. The two leaders agree strengthening the newly established democratic republic rather than implementing a people's republic immediately. They agree realizing the upcoming years, a 'decade of economic revolution' and changing the country's economic profile. The relationship came to a twist when Dr. Bhattarai wasn't given a second position in the government by Comrade Prachanda. But it seems settled after Dr. Bhattarai agreed this decision by Chairman Prachanda.
[edit] Twelve point agreement
Maoism |
On 22 November 2005, Prachanda and the Seven Party Alliance released a "twelve-point agreement" that expressed areas of agreement between the CPN(M) and the parties that won a large majority in the last parliamentary election in 1999. Among other points, this document stated that a dictatorial monarchy of King Gyanendra is the chief impediment to progress in Nepal. It claimed further that the Maoists are committed to human rights and press freedoms and a multi-party system of government. It pledged self-criticism and the intention of the Maoists and the Seven Parties to not repeat past mistakes.[19]
[edit] Ceasefires
Several ceasefires have occurred over the course of the Nepalese civil war.[20] Most recently, on 26 April 2006, Prachanda announced a ceasefire with a stated duration of 90 days. The move followed weeks of massive protests—the April 2006 Nepalese general strike— in Kathmandu and elsewhere that had forced King Gyanendra to give up the personal dictatorship he had established on the February 1, 2005, and restore the parliament that was dissolved in May 2002.
After that a new government was established by the Seven-Party Alliance. The parliament and the new government supported the ceasefire and started negotiations with the Maoists on the basis of the twelve-point agreement. The two sides agreed that a new constituent assembly will be elected to write a new constitution, and decide on the fate of monarchy. The Maoists want this process to end with Nepal becoming a republic.[21]
[edit] Public appearance
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2009) |
In the first week of May 2006, Maoist chairman Prachanda along with another senior leader Dr. Baburam Bhattarai entered Nepal through Birgunj after presiding over a Maoist meet in Punjab, India. After then, they attended various programs organized by the party in different places. Prachanda refused to make a public appearance before there was a political settlement with the seven-party alliance. The Maoists were rigid on their demands that the monarchy is to be abolished rather than just stripped off its powers. The Maoists looked every activity of the new government with suspicion. Before this, it had immediately released a press statement that the king's narration for reinstating the parliament was a betrayal to the people.
Maoist leader Krishna Bahadur Mahara claimed that there was a secret agreement between the seven party alliance and the king on April 24 where they ensured the king to retain monarchy in any form in the future. On June 6, 2006, then Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala went to India for a four day visit seeking support from India for Nepal's recent political development. Maoist chairman insisted not to ask any economic assistance without resolving the political disputes within the country and demanded that the Maoist prisoners be released soon who were languished in Indian jails.
After the return of then Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala to Nepal, he insisted having talks with Prachanda and Baburam directly at the high level. But Chairman Prachanda and the other senior leader refused Koirala's aspiration. They didn't show any willingness to arrive at Kathmandu. The then home minister Krishna Sitaula says, 'After repeated persuasion, Prachanda and Baburam Bhattarai finally agreed. But before their public appearance, there was a lot more to do. So I flew in a helicopter without my security guards to meet them.'
On morning, June 14, Sitaula flew in a private helicopter to Siklis, a mountainous village in Kaski district. When Sitaula reached there, the CPN Maoist was planning for a mass meeting in the village. He finalized their arriving at Kathmandu after having a four hour long talks with the senior leaders. On June 16, Sitaula flew to Pokhara to receive Prachanda and Bhattarai. Maoist chairman Prachanda along with his wife and Dr. Baburam Bhattarai were taken to the Prime Minister's residence in a car bearing a fluttering flag. Maoist chairman Prachanda says, 'That day, the first day I appeared in public in Kathmandu, I wore a light blue suit. I like light blue color the most.' It was a turning point in Prachanda's life after 25 years of underground life and after a prolonged people's war for 10 years.
There was an eight point understanding between the government and the Maoist rebels. After having talk with the Prime Minister, Prachanda speaking to the media said that the peace talks was back on progress besides the setback at past. The public appearance of the rebel leader created a sensation in Nepal. The Maoist chief claimed that the understanding would give a new political direction to Nepal. Stating that the deal was 'a historical one', Prachanda said that Nepal would soon be transformed into a republic after CA elections. On June 17, Prachanda after having a one night stay at Kathmandu, was escorted back to Doti district due to security reasons.
[edit] Interim government
Prachanda met for talks with Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala on 16 June 2006, which was thought to be his first visit to the capital Kathmandu in more than a decade.[22][23] This meeting resulted in an agreement to dissolve parliament, incorporate the CPN (M) into a new interim government, draft a new constitution, and disband the CPN (M)'s "people's governments" operating in rural Nepal. The two sides also agreed to disarm at a later date, under international supervision.[24] On 18 September 2007, the CPN(M) pulled themselves out of the coalition government ahead of the Constituent Assembly election, demanding the declaration of a republic by parliament and a system of proportional representation in the election. The CPN(M) rejoined the government on 30 December 2007 after an agreement to abolish the monarchy following the election and to have a system of partial proportional representation in the election.[25]
[edit] The path to power
The long decade people's war ultimately led the Maoists to Nepal's parliament. After winning a sizeable majority in the Constitutional Assembly elections, Prachanda was nominated for the Prime Ministership by the party[26] In the April 2008 Constituent Assembly election, he was elected from Kathmandu constituency-10, winning by a large margin and receiving nearly twice as many votes as his nearest rival, the candidate of the Nepali Congress. He also won overwhelmingly in Rolpa constituency-2, receiving 34,230 votes against 6,029 for Shanta Kumar Oli of the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) (CPN (UML)).[27] With the CPN(M) appearing to have won the election, Prachanda pledged that the party would work together with other parties in crafting the new constitution, and he assured the international community, particularly India and China, that the party wanted good relations and cooperation. He also said that the party had expressed its commitment to multi-party democracy through the election.[28]
Following power-sharing discussions that lasted several months, Prachanda was elected as Prime Minister by the Constituent Assembly on 15 August 2008. The CPN (UML), the Madeshi People's Rights Forum (MJF), and 18 other parties supported him,[29] but the Nepali Congress supported Sher Bahadur Deuba. Prachanda received 464 votes, while Deuba received 113 votes.[3] Prachanda was sworn in on 18 August.[4]
[edit] References
- ^ http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/politics/from-chhabilal-to-pushpa-kamal-to-prachanda-profile_10084654.html
- ^ "Maoist Leader Becomes Nepalese PM," BBC, 15 August 2008
- ^ a b "Ex-rebels' chief chosen as Nepal's new PM", Associated Press (International Herald Tribune), August 15, 2008.
- ^ a b "PM Dahal sworn in", Nepalnews, August 18, 2008.
- ^ "Nepal PM quits in army chief row" (in English). BBC News. 4-5-2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8032389.stm. Retrieved on 4-5-2009.
- ^ http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gD6g0JrxeQ5R-4t1N1bfBE0CSOwQ
- ^ "Profile: Prachanda, from commander to prime minister." Chinaview.cn, 15 August 2008
- ^ [1]
- ^ [2]
- ^ [3]
- ^ Somini Sengupta, and he was also the teacher in high school in Aarught of Gorkha district."Where Maoists Still Matter," New York Times, 30 October 2005
- ^ http://www.nepalnews.com/archive/2008/others/feature/aug/news_feature01.php
- ^ Baburam Bhattarai, "40 Point Demand", South Asia Intelligence Review, 4 February 1996
- ^ "Maoists Demand Interim Constitution," Kathmandu Post, 28 April 2003
- ^ Singh Khadka, "Nepal's Maoist leadership divisions," BBC, 6 May 2005
- ^ Official expelled from Maoist party
- ^ Charles Haviland, "Meeting Nepal's Maoist leader", BBC, 16 June 2005
- ^ Sanjay Upadhya, Nepal: Maoists hide More Than They Reveal", Scoop, 16 February 2005
- ^ Unofficial translation, "The 12-point agreement between the Maoists and the seven-party alliance as listed in statement by Pushpa Kamal Dahal on Tuesday," Nepal News, 25 November 2005
- ^ Kamala Sarup (ed.), "Maoists declare three-month long ceasefire," Peace Journalism/Nepal News, 3 September 2005
- ^ "Nepal Maoist rebels declare truce," BBC, 27 April 2006
- ^ "Maoists to join Nepal government," BBC, 16 June 2006
- ^ "Power Play," Times of India Online 3 November 2001
- ^ Maseeh Rahman, "After a decade of fighting, Nepal's Maoist rebels embrace government," The Guardian, 17 June 2006
- ^ "Nepal Maoists rejoin cabinet after monarchy deal," Reuters, 30 December 2007
- ^ "Nepal Maoists want their chief as president", Reuters (AlertNet), 25 January 2008.
- ^ "Prachanda wins from Rolpa-2 as well", Nepalnews, 13 April 2008.
- ^ ""We want to continue working with parties and the int'l community," says Prachanda", Nepalnews, 12 April 2008.
- ^ Fenner, Robert; Agrawal, Anoop (2008-08-16). "Former Nepal Rebel Prachanda Chosen as Prime Minister (Update1)". Bloomberg. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601091&sid=ak99TULvjRvE&refer=india. Retrieved on 2008-08-17.
[edit] External links
This article's external links may not follow Wikipedia's content policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links. (May 2009) |
- RETURNED: Child Soldiers of Nepal's Maoist Army Directed by Robert Koenig
- Prachanda - hero or villain? By Rabindra Mishra (BBC Nepali service)
- Prachanda speech on democracy given at Hindustan Times Leadership Summit, New Delhi, India, November 18, 2006 / Video of the Speech (together with Lord Neill Kinnock, Labour Party Great Britain)
- Prachanda's address to the 63rd session of the United Nations General Assembly, September 26, 2008
- L'Espresso-Interview with Prachanda: Our revolution won, November 2006
- L'Espresso-Interview with Prachanda as Video, November 2006
- Interview with Kantipur Online
- Exclusive interview with Prachanda, The Hindu (India) of February 8, 9, and 10, 2006
- An interview with Prachanda
- BBC news Video Interview with Prachanda
- My Free Nepal
- Interview with Revolutionary Worker in 2000
- [4]
- [5]
Political offices | ||
---|---|---|
Preceded by Girija Prasad Koirala | Prime Minister of Nepal 2008 – 2009 | Succeeded by Madhav Kumar Nepal |
Party political offices | ||
Preceded by Mohan Vaidya | General Secretary of the Communist Party of Nepal (Mashal) 1986 – 1991 | Succeeded by Narayan Kaji Shrestha (Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre)) |
Preceded by None | Chairman of the Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) 1994 – present | Succeeded by Incumbent |
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18 Jan 2008 ... Maoist leader Pushpa Kamal Dahal, better known as Prachand, will contest election from Kathmandu and his home constituency Chitwan.
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History of Nepal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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[edit] |
History of Nepal |
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Mythology of Manjushree |
Gopal era |
Mahispal era |
Kirat era |
Licchavi era |
Thakuri era |
Malla era |
Shah era |
Rana era |
Democratic era |
Timeline |
History of South Asia | |
---|---|
Stone Age | before 3300 BCE |
• Mehrgarh Culture | • 7000–3300 BCE |
Indus Valley Civilization | 3300–1700 BCE |
• Late Harappan Culture | • 1700–1300 BCE |
Vedic Civilization | 2000–600 BCE |
Iron Age | 1200–1 BCE |
• Maha Janapadas | • 700–300 BCE |
• Magadha Empire | • 684–424 BCE |
• Nanda Empire | • 424-321 BCE |
• Maurya Empire | • 321–184 BCE |
• Sunga Empire | • 185-73 BCE |
• Kanva Empire | • 75-26 BCE |
• Kharavela Empire | • 209–170 BCE |
• Kuninda Kingdom | • 200s BCE–300s CE |
• Indo-Scythian Kingdom | • 200 BC–400 CE |
• Chera Kingdom | • 300 BCE–1200 CE |
• Chola Empire | • 300 BCE–1279 CE |
• Pandyan Kingdom | • 250 BCE–1345 CE |
• Satavahana Empire | • 230 BCE–220 CE |
• Indo-Greek Kingdom | • 180 BCE–10 CE |
Middle Kingdoms | 1CE–1279 CE |
• Indo-Parthian Kingdom | • 21–130s CE |
• Western Satrap Empire | • 35–405 CE |
• Kushan Empire | • 60–240 CE |
• Indo-Sassanid Kingdom | • 230–360 CE |
• Vakataka Empire | • 250–500 CE |
• Kalabhras Kingdom | • 250–600 CE |
• Gupta Empire | • 280–550 CE |
• Pallava Kingdom | • 275–800 CE |
• Kadamba Empire | • 345–525 CE |
• Western Ganga Kingdom | • 350–1000 CE |
• Vishnukundina Empire | • 420-624 CE |
• Huna Kingdom | • 475-576 CE |
• Chalukya Empire | • 543–753 CE |
• Harsha Empire | • 590-647 CE |
• Shahi Kingdom | • 565-670 CE |
• Eastern Chalukya Kingdom | • 624-1075 CE |
• Pratihara Empire | • 650–1036 CE |
• Pala Empire | • 750–1174 CE |
• Rashtrakuta Empire | • 753–982 CE |
• Paramara Kingdom | • 800–1327 CE |
• Yadava Empire | • 850–1334 CE |
• Solanki Kingdom | • 942–1244 CE |
• Western Chalukya Empire | • 973–1189 CE |
• Hoysala Empire | • 1040–1346 CE |
• Sena Empire | • 1070–1230 CE |
• Eastern Ganga Empire | • 1078–1434 CE |
• Kakatiya Kingdom | • 1083–1323 CE |
• Kalachuri Empire | • 1130–1184 CE |
Islamic Sultanates | 1206–1596 CE |
• Delhi Sultanate | • 1206–1526 CE |
• Deccan Sultanates | • 1490–1596 CE |
Ahom Kingdom | 1228–1826 CE |
Vijayanagara Empire | 1336–1646 CE |
Mysore Kingdom | 1399–1947 CE |
Mughal Empire | 1526–1858 CE |
Madurai Nayak Kingdom | 1559 –1736 CE |
Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom | 1572–1918 CE |
Maratha Empire | 1674–1818 CE |
Sikh Confederacy | 1716–1799 CE |
Sikh Empire | 1799–1849 CE |
Company rule in India | 1757–1858 CE |
British India | 1858–1947 CE |
Partition of India | 1947 CE |
Nation histories | |
Afghanistan • Bangladesh • Bhutan • India Maldives • Nepal • Pakistan • Sri Lanka | |
Regional histories | |
Assam • Bihar • Balochistan • Bengal Himachal Pradesh • Orissa • Pakistani Regions Punjab • South India • Tibet | |
Specialised histories | |
Coinage • Dynasties • Economy Indology • Language • Literature • Maritime Military • Science and Technology • Timeline | |
The history of Nepal (नेपालको इतिहास) is characterized by its isolated position in the Himalayas and its two dominant neighbors, India and China.
Nepal is one of the only countries which has been independent throughout its history, never conquered, occupied, or governed by an outside power. Although there has been speculation that it was under the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE or the Tibetan Empire in the 7th or 8th century CE, firm evidence is lacking. From the time historical records are clear, Nepal has continuously and successfully defended its sovereignty.[1][2][3]
Due to the arrival of disparate settler groups from outside through the ages, it is now a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, multi-lingual country. Its population is predominantly Hindu with significant presence of Buddhists, who were in majority at one time in the past. Nepal was split in three kingdoms from the 15th to 18th century, when it was unified under a monarchy. The national language of Nepal is called 'Nepali', a name given - long after unification of Nepal - to the language called Khas Kura.
Nepal experienced a failed struggle for democracy in the 20th century. During the 1990s and until 2008, the country was in civil strife. A peace treaty was signed in 2008 and elections were held in the same year.
Many of the ills of Nepal have been blamed on the royal family of Nepal. In a historical vote for the election of the constituent assembly, Nepalis voted to oust the monarchy in Nepal. In June 2008, Nepalis ousted the royal household. Nepal was formally renamed the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal when it became a federal republic.
Contents[hide] |
[edit] Toponymy
The word Nepal is derived from Nepa (नेपा:); the old name of Kathmandu valley was Nepa in Nepal Bhasa, the language of Newars, who were the early inhabitants of the valley, long before the unification of Nepal. The fact that Nepal Sambat, one of the three main calendars of Nepal, existed long before the unification of Nepal proves this historical fact.
Other toponym theories include: -
- "Nepal" may be derived from the Sanskrit nipalaya, which means "at the foot of the mountains" or "abode at the foot", a reference to its location in relation to the Himalayas. Thus, it may be an Eastern equivalent of the European toponym "Piedmont."
- It has also been suggested that the name comes from the Tibetan niyampal, which means "holy land".
- A third theory suggests that Nepal came from compounding the words NE, which means wool, and PAL, which means a tented house; a long time ago, Nepal used to produce a lot of wool and the houses were used to store the wool - hence the word NE-PAL.
- The name Nepal is also supposed to be derived from the Sanskrit word "NEP"(नेप), with the suffix "AL" (आल) added to it; though still under controversy, NEP were the people who use to be cow herders - the GOPALS (गोपाल) - who came to the Nepal valley for the first time from the Ganges plain of India.
- According to Nepali scholar Rishikesh Shaha, the ancient chronicles report that a sage (muni) named Ne became the protector (pāla) of this land and the founder of its first ruling dynasty. The name of the country, Ne-pāla, therefore originally meant the land 'protected by Ne.'[4]
[edit] Early ages
Prehistory
Neolithic tools found in the Kathmandu Valley indicate that people have been living in the Himalayan region for at least 9,000 years. It appears that people who were probably of Kirant ethnicity lived in Nepal more than 2,500 years ago.
[edit] Legends and Ancient times
Though very little is known about the early history of Nepal, legends and documented references, like the following, reach back to the first millennium BCE:
- The epic Ramayana, which dates from an era before the Mahabharata, states that Mithila, currently known as Janakpur in Nepal, is the birth place of the highly revered princess Sita, the virtuous queen of Hindu divine king Lord Rama.
- Also, the presence of historical sites, e.g., Valmiki ashram, indicates the presence of Sanatana (ancient) Hindu culture in Nepal at that period.
- The epic Mahabharata mentions the Kiratas among the inhabitants of Nepal. Kirati king Yalambar had the dubious honor of being slain in the battle of the Mahabharata, in which gods and mortals fought alongside each other. Legend credits him with meeting Indra, the lord of heaven, who ventured into the Valley in human guise.
- According to some of the chronicles, the successors of Ne were the gopālavaṃśi or "Cowherd family", whose names often end in -gupta and are said to have ruled for some 491 years. They are said to have been followed by the mahaiṣapālavaṃśa or "Buffalo-herder Dynasty", established by an Indian Rajput named Bhul Singh.[5]
- inscriptions found on archeological stoneworks, which list mostly the dates and commissioners of these constructions, also communicate royal edicts, religious mantras or historical notes sometimes and, through the corroboration of local myths with such evidence, a people prior to the Licchavi have been identified, known as the Kirata.
[edit] Kirat Period
Nepal's recorded history began with the Kiratis, who arrived in the 7th or 8th century BCE from the east to the Kathmandu valley. Little is known about them, other than their deftness as sheep farmers and fondness for carrying long knives. The Kirats ruled for about 1225 years (800 BCE-300 CE), their reign had a total of 29 kings during that time. Their first and best-remembered king was Yalambar, who is referenced in the epic Mahabharata.
In the chronicle of Bansawali William Kirk Patrick mentions that the Kirat rule existed from about 900 BCE to 300 CE. During this long period altogether 29 Kirat Kings ruled over the country. The 29 Kirat Kings were;
- 1. Yalambar
- 2. Pari
- 3. Skandhar
- 4. Balamba
- 5. Hriti
- 6. Humati
- 7. Jitedasti
- 8. Galinja
- 9. Oysgja
- 10. Suyarma
- 11. Papa
- 12. Bunka
- 13. Swawnanda
- 14. Sthunko
- 15. Jinghri
- 16. Nane
- 17. Luka
- 18. Thor
- 19. Thoko
- 20. Verma
- 21. Guja
- 22. Pushkar
- 23. Keshu
- 24. Suja
- 25. Sansa
- 26. Gunam
- 27. Khimbu
- 28. Paruka
- 29. Gasti
- The 1st Kirat King Yalambar laid the foundation of the Kirat dynasty after defeating the last ruler of the Abhir dynasty. When Kirats occupied the valley, they made Matatirtha their capital. The Kirat kingdom during the rule of Yalambar had extended to Tista in the East and Trisidi in the West. It is said Yalambar had gone to witness the battle of Mahabharata between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. He was so brave and powerful that Lord Krishna beheaded him prior to the battle suspecting he might fight for the Kauravas.
- The 7th Kirat King 'Jitedasti'
During the rule of the 7th Kirat King Jitedasti, Lord Gautam Buddha visited the valley with his several disciples. He visited holy places of Swayambhu, Guheswari, etc., and preached his religious teaching. The Kirats of the valley refused to follow his doctrine but welcomed Lord Buddha and his disciples.
- The 14th Kiirat King 'Sthunko'
During the rule of the 14th Kirat King Sthunko, the Indian Emperor Ashok came to the Kathmandu Valley with his daughter, princess Charumati. During his stay in the valley, he had four stupas built in four directions and one in the centre of Patan. He arranged his daughter Charumati's marriage with a local young prince named Devpal. Prince Devpal and his consort Charumati lived at Chabahil near Pashupati area. Later Charumati had the stupas of Devpatan built after the death of her husband in his memory. Charumati who had later on become a nun herself also got erected a convent where she resided and practiced Lord Buddha's doctrine.
- The 15th Kirat king 'Jinghri'
During the rule of the 15th Kirat King Jinghri, another religious doctrine, Jainism, was being preached by Mahavir Jain in India. In this regard, Bhadrabhau, a disciple of Mahavir Jain, came to Nepal. But Jainism did not gain as much popularity as Buddhism in Nepal.
- The 28th Kirat King 'Paruka'
During the rule of the 28th Kirat King Paruka, the Sombanshi ruler attacked his regime many times from the west. Although he successfully repelled their attacks, he was forced to move to Shankhamul from Gokarna. He had a royal palace called "Patuka" built there for him. The 'Patuka' palace can no longer be seen, except its ruins in the form of a mound. Patuka changed Shankhamul into a beautiful town.
- The 29th Kirat King 'Gasti'
The last King of the Kirat dynasty was Gasti. He proved to be a weak ruler and was overthrown by the Sombanshi ruler Nimisha. This ended the powerful Kirat dynasty that had lasted for about 1225 years. After their defeat, the Kirats moved to the Eastern hills of Nepal and settled down, divided into small principalities. Their settlements were divided into three regions, i.e., 'Wallokirat' that lay to the East of the Kathmandu, 'Majkirat' or Central Kirat region and 'Pallokirat' that lay to the far East of the Kathmandu valley. These regions are still heavily populated by Kirats.
[edit] Birth of Buddha
One of the earliest confederations of South Asia was that of the Shakya clan, whose capital was Kapilvastu, Nepal. Siddhartha Gautama Buddha, Siddharta Gautama (563–483 BCE), who renounced his royalty to lead an ascetic life and came to be known as the Buddha ("the enlightened one") was orn to the Shakya king Sudhodhan. After finding enlightenment, Lord Gautam Buddha returned to his home place Kapilvastu now part of Nepal to teach his wife Yesodhara what he had learned. But by 260 BCE, most of North India and southern Nepal were ruled by the Maurya Empire. Buddha and his disciple Ananda visited the Kathmandu Valley and stayed for a time in Patan. Although not all of Nepal was under Maurya occupation, there is evidence of at least the influence of Maurya Emperor Ashoka the Great, the legendary Buddhist proselytiser and ruler from 273 BCE to 232 BCE. Ashoka was a visitor to Kathmandu in this period and, as a follower of Buddhism, he visited Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha, and erected 4 stupas in Kathmandu. His daughter married a local prince and further spread the religion. The remains of a Buddhist convent have been found in the Kathmandu Valley.
[edit] Licchavi rule
It is unclear when exactly the Licchavi kingdom began. From the findings at the ancient capital of Handigaun, it appears that Licchavi rulers were in power on two occasions: from about 200 CE to the 5th century, and from about 750 to 1200 CE.[6] Archaeological evidence for the Licchavi period mainly consists of stonework inscriptions, dated from two separate, consecutive eras; the former era, the Åšaka or Saka era, is dated 78 CE, whereas the latter, of the Aṃshuvarmā or Manadeva-II's era, is dated 576 CE.
In between, in the fourth century CE, the country fell under the influence of the Indian Gupta Empire - considered to be a golden period of Hinduism in India - whose cultural diffusion is evident, despite their lack of direct control of Nepal.
First Licchavi rule evidence: A well-preserved life-sized sandstone sculpture of a king named Jaya Varman, discovered in Maligaon in the eastern part of Kathmandu, contains an inscription dating from the 'samvat' year 107, which most probably is in the Shaka era and is, therefore, from 185 CE; this dating is also supported by the style of the sculpture, which is clearly Kushan in origin. It is unclear whether Jaya Varman was a Licchavi or a pre-Licchavi monarch. However, most scholars are agreed that, Licchavi rule of the Kathmandu valley must have begun in the first or second century CE.[7][8]
Second Licchavi rule evidence: Two inscriptions of a known date, both Licchavi, are a broken pillar inscription from Pashupati dated 381 (459 CE), and the Changu Narayana pillar inscription of King Manadeva in 386 (464 CE).[8][9]
There is a good and quite detailed description of the kingdom of Nepal in the account of the renowned Chinese Buddhist pilgrim monk, Xuanzang, dating from c. 645 CE.[10][11]
The Licchavi rulers arranged for the documentation of information on politics, society, and the economy in the region. Most of the Licchavi records—written in Sanskrit—are deeds reporting donations to religious foundations, predominantly Hindu temples; and the last such record was added in 733.
The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late eighth century and was followed by a Malla dynasty, from 879, although the extent of their control over the entire country is uncertain.
Thakuri rule
By 879, the Licchavi era had petered out and was succeeded by the Thakuri dynasty. A grim period of instability and invasions often referred to as the 'Dark Ages' followed, but Kathmandu Valley's strategic location ensured the kingdom's survival and growth.
Malla dynasty
Several centuries later, the Thakuri king, Arideva, founded the Malla dynasty, kick-starting another renaissance of Nepali culture. Despite earthquakes, the occasional invasion, and frequent feuding between the independent city-states of Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur, the dynasty flourished, reaching its zenith in the 15th century under Yaksha Malla.
Chalukkya dynasty
By the late 11th century, southern Nepal came under the occupation of the Chalukaya Empire of southern India. Under the Chalukayas, Nepal's religious establishment changed as the kings patronised Hinduism instead of the prevailing Buddhism.
[edit] Age of Principalities
Three city-states
After the 15th century, the Kathmandu Valley lost its central control and was ruled as three city-states: Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhadgaon. Many Nepalese architectural heritages, such as temples, palaces, including many UNESCO world heritage sites, were built during the rule of the Newar Kings. These include the Kathmandu Old Palace (Kathmandu Durbar Square), Patan Palace (Patan Durbar Square), Bhaktapur Palace (Bhaktapur Durbar Square) etc. By this time, people living in and around Kathmandu Valley (irrespective of their ethnic origins) were called "Newars" (or "Nepa:mi" in "Newari" language meaning, the citizens of Nepal).
.
Magar Principalities
Magars are martial people that first established their kingdom in present day western Nepal. They were animistic and shamanic in their religious practices. The Kham Magar of the upper Karnali basin and their brethren of the mid-hills of Nepal had a flourishing and empirical kingdom. Much archaeological proof of their existence can be found in the western mid-hills of Nepal.
The Magar have a strong military and warrior tradition. However, their hospitality and concern for their fellow human beings is also legendary. Two waves of immigrants became the undoing of the Magar empire.
Firstly, the Khasas were welcomed and assimilated within Magar empire. Secondly, due to the advance of Muslim forces into the Gangetic plains of India, the Brahmins entered the Magar empire as refugees.
These two groups were given sanctuary in the Magar empire. The latter group of refugees started to impose their view of Hinduism upon the Magars, while the former group were given the status of Chettri by the latter group in accordance with their view of Hinduism.
This left the Magar people boxed into the third tier in their own kingdom (the first being the Brahmins, the second being the newly elevated Chettri, previously the Khasas).
This meant that the one-time rulers of the Nepali mid-hills became the ruled upon. This was the start of the degradation of the Magar empire. The introduction of Hinduism in itself became the cataclysmic event in the undoing of the Magar empire.
[edit] History of Kirat
In the meantime, the History of Kirat covers much of the history and achievements of the Kirant people of Eastern Nepal/Kiratdesh from ancient period until the Gorkha conquest in the eastern Nepal.
[edit] History of Limbuwan
History of Limbuwan shows the history and political development of the people of Limbuwan until their unification with the Kingdom of Gorkha in 1774 AD. During King Prithivi Narayan Shah's unification of Nepal, the present-day Nepal east of Arun and Koshi River was known as Pallo Kirant Limbuwan. It was divided into ten Limbu Kingdoms of which the Morang Kingdom was the most powerful and had the central government. The capital of the Morang Kingdom of Limbuwan was Bijaypur, now Dharan. After the Limbuwan-Gorkha War and seeing the threat of the rising power of the British East India Company, kings and ministers of all the ten Limbu Kingdoms of Limbuwan gathered in Bijaypur, present day Dharan, to agree upon the Limbuwan-Gorkha treaty. This Treaty formally united ten Limbu Kingdoms into the Gorkha Kingdom, but it also gave Limbuwan full autonomy under Limbuwan Kipat System.
[edit] Kingdom of Nepal
[edit] Gorkha rule
After decades of rivalry between the medieval kingdoms, modern Nepal was created in the latter half of the 18th century, when Prithvi Narayan Shah, the ruler of the small principality of Gorkha, formed a unified country from a number of independent hill states. Prithvi Narayan Shah dedicated himself at an early age to the conquest of the Kathmandu Valley and the creation of a single state, which he achieved in 1768.
The country was frequently called the Gorkha Kingdom. It is a misconception that the Gurkhas took their name from the Gorkha region of Nepal. The region was given its name after the Gurkhas had established their control of these areas. The Gurkha, also spelled Gorkha, are people from Nepal who take their name from the legendary eighth-century Hindu warrior-saint Guru Gorakhnath. Gurkhas claim descent from the Hindu Rajputs and Brahmins of Northern India, who entered modern Nepal from the west.
After Shah's death, the Shah dynasty began to expand their kingdom into what is present day North India. Between 1788 and 1791, Nepal invaded Tibet and robbed Tashilhunpo Monastery of Shigatse. Alarmed, the Chinese emperor Qianlong appointed Fu Kangan commander-in-chief of the Tibetan campaign and Fu not only defeated the Gurkha army and liberated Tibet but also conquered Nepal. Therefore, the Gurkhas were forced to accept surrender on China terms.
After 1800, the heirs of Prithvi Narayan Shah proved unable to maintain firm political control over Nepal. A period of internal turmoil followed.
Rivalry between Nepal and the British East India Company - over the princely states bordering Nepal and India - eventually led to the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–16), in which Nepal suffered a complete rout. The Treaty of Sugauli was signed in 1816, ceding large parts of the Nepali territories of Terrai and Sikkim, (nearly one third of the country), to the British, in exchange for Nepalese autonomy. As the territories were not restored to Nepal by the British when freedom was granted to the people of British India, these have become a part of the Republic of India, although Sikkim was annexed by India later.
[edit] Rana Administration
Factionalism among the royal family led to a period of instability after the war. In 1846, Queen Rajendralakshmi plotted to overthrow Jang Bahadur, a fast-rising military leader of Indian Rajput ancestry who was presenting a threat to her power. The plot was uncovered and the queen had several hundred princes and chieftains executed after an armed clash between military personnel and administrators loyal to the queen. This came to be known as the Kot Massacre. However, Bahadur emerged victorious eventually and founded the Rana dynasty; the monarch was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary, held by a Rana.
The Rana regime, a tightly centralized autocracy, pursued a policy of isolating Nepal from external influences. This policy helped Nepal maintain its national independence during the British colonial era, but it also impeded the country's economic development and modernisation. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British and assisted the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and later in both World Wars.
[edit] 20th century
In 1923 Britain and Nepal formally signed an agreement of friendship, in which Nepal and India (which was under British Rule at that time) negotiated and ended up exchanging some cities.
Slavery was abolished in Nepal in 1924.[12]
[edit] Democratic Reform
Popular dissatisfaction against the family rule of the Ranas had started emerging from among the few educated people, who had studied in various Indian schools and colleges, and also from within the Ranas, many of whom were marginalised within the ruling Rana hierarchy. Many of these Nepalese in exile had actively taken part in the Indian Independence struggle and wanted to liberate Nepal as well from the internal autocratic Rana occupation. The political parties such as The Prajaparishad and Nepali Congress were already formed in exile by leaders such as B.P. Koirala, Ganesh Man Singh, Subarna Sumsher Rana, Krishna Prasad Bhattarai,Girija Prasad Koirala and many other patriotic-minded Nepalis who urged the military and popular political movement in Nepal to overthrow the autocratic Rana Regime. Among the prominent martyrs to die for the cause, executed at the hands of the Ranas, were Dharma Bhakta Mathema, Shukraraj Shastri, Gangalal Shrestha and Dasharath Chand. This turmoil culminated in King Tribhuvan, a direct descendant of Prithvi Narayan Shah, fleeing from his "palace prison" in 1950, to newly independent India, touching off an armed revolt against the Rana administration. This eventually ended in the return of the Shah family to power and the appointment of a non-Rana as prime minister. A period of quasi-constitutional rule followed, during which the monarch, assisted by the leaders of fledgling political parties, governed the country. During the 1950s, efforts were made to frame a constitution for Nepal that would establish a representative form of government, based on a British model.
In early 1959, Tribhuvan's son King Mahendra issued a new constitution, and the first democratic elections for a national assembly were held. The Nepali Congress Party, a moderate socialist group, gained a substantial victory in the election. Its leader, Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala, formed a government and served as prime minister. After years of power wrangling between the kings (Tribhuvan and Mahendra) and the government, Mahendra dissolved the democratic experiment in 1960.
[edit] Royal Coup by King Mahendra
Declaring parliamentary democracy a failure, King Mahendra carried out a royal coup 18 months later, in 1962. He dismissed the elected Koirala government, declared that a "partyless" panchayat system would govern Nepal, and promulgated another new constitution on December 16, 1962.
Subsequently, the elected Prime Minister, Members of Parliament and hundreds of democratic activists were arrested. (In fact, this trend of arrest of political activists and democratic supporters continued for the entire 30 year period of partyless Panchayati System under King Mahendra and then his son, King Birendra).
The new constitution established a "partyless" system of panchayats (councils) which King Mahendra considered to be a democratic form of government, closer to Nepalese traditions. As a pyramidal structure, progressing from village assemblies to a Rastriya Panchayat (National Parliament), the panchayat system constitutionalised the absolute power of the monarchy and kept the King as head of state with sole authority over all governmental institutions, including the Cabinet (Council of Ministers) and the Parliament. One-state-one-language became the national policy, and all other languages suffered at the cost of the official language, "Nepali", which was the king's language.
King Mahendra was succeeded by his 27 year-old son, King Birendra, in 1972. Amid student demonstrations and anti-regime activities in 1979, King Birendra called for a national referendum to decide on the nature of Nepal's government: either the continuation of the panchayat system with democratic reforms or the establishment of a multiparty system. The referendum was held in May 1980, and the panchayat system won a narrow victory. The king carried out the promised reforms, including selection of the prime minister by the Rastriya Panchayat.
People in rural areas had expected that their interests would be better represented after the adoption of parliamentary democracy in 1990. The Nepali Congress with support of "Alliance of leftist parties" decided to launch a decisive agitational movement, Jana Andolan, which forced the monarchy to accept constitutional reforms and to establish a multiparty parliament. In May 1991, Nepal held its first parliamentary elections in nearly 50 years. The Nepali Congress won 110 of the 205 seats and formed the first elected government in 32 years.
Civil Strife
In 1992, in a situation of economic crisis and chaos, with spiralling prices as a result of implementation of changes in policy of the new Congress government, the radical left stepped up their political agitation. A Joint People's Agitation Committee was set up by the various groups.[13] A general strike was called for April 6.
Violent incidents began to occur on the evening before of the strike. The Joint People's Agitation Committee had called for a 30-minute 'lights out' in the capital, and violence erupted outside Bir Hospital when activists tried to enforce the 'lights out'. At dawn on April 6, clashes between strike activists and police, outside a police station in Pulchok (Patan), left two activists dead.
Later in the day, a mass rally of the Agitation Committee at Tundikhel in the capital Kathmandu was attacked by police forces. As a result, riots broke out and the Nepal Telecommunications building was set on fire; police opened fire at the crowd, killing several persons. The Human Rights Organisation of Nepal estimated that 14 persons, including several onlookers, had been killed in police firing.[14]
When promised land reforms failed to appear, people in some districts started to organize to enact their own land reform and to gain some power over their lives in the face of usurious landlords. However, this movement was repressed by the Nepali government, in "Operation Romeo" and "Operation Kilo Sera II", which took the lives of many of the leading activists of the struggle. As a result, many witnesses to this repression became radicalized.
[edit] Nepalese Civil War
This article uses an unsuitable grammatical tense for an encyclopedia. Please consider copy editing to past tense if historic, present tense if not time-based (e.g. fiction), or future tense if upcoming. |
In February 1996, one of the Maoist parties started a bid to replace the parliamentary monarchy with a so-called people's new democratic republic, through a Maoist revolutionary strategy known as the people's war, which led to the Nepalese Civil War. Led by Dr. Baburam Bhattarai and Pushpa Kamal Dahal (also known as "Prachanda"), the insurgency began in five districts in Nepal: Rolpa, Rukum, Jajarkot, Gorkha, and Sindhuli. The Maoists declared the existence of a provisional "people's government" at the district level in several locations.
Meanwhile, on June 1, 2001, Crown Prince Dipendra went on a shooting-spree, assassinating 9 members of the royal family, including King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya, before shooting himself. Due to his survival he temporarily became king before dying of his wounds, after which Prince Gyanendra (Birendra's brother) inherited the throne, according to tradition. Meanwhile, the Maoist rebellion escalated, and in October 2001 the king temporarily deposed the government and took complete control of it. A week later he reappointed another government, but the country was still very unstable because of the civil war with the Maoists, the various clamouring political factions, the king's attempts to take more control of the government, and worries about the competence of Gyanendra's son and heir, Prince Paras.
In the face of unstable governments and a Maoist siege on the Kathmandu Valley in August 2004, popular support for the monarchy began to wane. On February 1, 2005, Gyanendra dismissed the entire government and assumed full executive powers, declaring a "state of emergency" to quash the Maoist movement. Politicians were placed under house arrest, phone and internet lines were cut, and freedom of the press was severely curtailed.
The king's new regime made little progress in his stated aim to suppress the insurgents. Municipal elections in February 2006 were described by the European Union as "a backward step for democracy", as the major parties boycotted the election and some candidates were forced to run for office by the army.[15] In April 2006 strikes and street protests in Kathmandu forced the king to reinstate the parliament. A seven-party coalition resumed control of the government and stripped the king of most of his powers. As of 15 January 2007 Nepal was governed by an unicameral legislature under an interim constitution. On December 24, 2007, seven parties, including the former Maoist rebels and the ruling party, agreed to abolish monarchy and declare Nepal a Federal Republic..[16] In the elections held on April 10, 2008, the Maoists secured a simple majority, with the prospect of forming a government to rule the proposed 'Republic of Nepal'.
[edit] Federal Democratic Republic
On May 28, 2008 the newly elected Constituent Assembly declared Nepal a Federal Democratic Republic, abolishing the 240-year-old monarchy. The motion for abolition of monarchy was carried by a huge majority; out of 564 members present in the assembly, 560 voted for the motion while 4 members voted against it.[17] Finally, on June 11, 2008 ex-king Gyanendra left the palace.[18] Ram Baran Yadav of the Nepali Congress became the first president of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal on July 23, 2008. Similarly, Pushpa Kamal Dahal, popularly known as Prachanda, of the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) was elected as the first Prime Minister on August 15, 2008, defeating Sher Bahadur Deuba of the Nepali Congress Party.
[edit] A chronology of key events
[edit] Footnotes
- ^ Heitzman, James (1993). "Nepal: Historical Setting". in Andrea Matles Savada. Nepal and Bhutan: Country Studies (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. p. 5. ISBN 0-8444-0777-1. "There is no proof that Nepal was ever included in the [Mauryan] empire...[b]ut the empire had important cultural and political consequences for Nepal."
- ^ Heitzman. p. 7. "Some early historians, such as the French scholar Sylvain Lévi, thought that Nepal may have become subordinate to Tibet for some time, but more recent Nepalese historians, including Dilli Raman Regmi, deny this interpretation."
- ^ Rose, Leo E.; Margaret W. Fisher (1970). The Politics of Nepal. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. xi. ISBN 0-8014-0574-2. "Nepal is of special interest, partly because it is an Asian country that was never reduced to colonial status."
- ^ Shaha, Rishikesh. Ancient and Medieval Nepal (1992), pp. 6-7. Manohar Publications, New Delhi. ISBN 81-85425-69-8.
- ^ Shaha, Rishikesh. Ancient and Medieval Nepal (1992), p. 7. Manohar Publications, New Delhi. ISBN 81-85425-69-8.
- ^ Amatya, Shaphalya. (1993). "Archaeology Shrouded in Mystery." The Rising Nepal, Sunday, Oct., 31, 1993
- ^ "A Kushan-period Sculpture from the reign of Jaya Varman, A.D. 185." Kathmandu, Nepal. Kashinath Tamot and Ian Alsop. [1]
- ^ a b Shaha, Rishikesh. Ancient and Medieval Nepal (1992), p. 11. Manohar Publications, New Delhi. ISBN 81-85425-69-8.
- ^ "A Kushan-period Sculpture from the reign of Jaya Varman, A.D. 185." Kathmandu, Nepal. Kashinath Tamot and Ian Alsop. [2]
- ^ Li, Rongxi (translator). 1995. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions, pp. 219-220. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California. ISBN 1-886439-02-8
- ^ Watters, Thomas. 1904-5. On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India (A.D. 629-645), pp. 83-85. Reprint: Mushiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi. 1973.
- ^ Tucci, Giuseppe. (1952). Journey to Mustang, 1952. Trans. by Diana Fussell. 1st Italian edition, 1953; 1st English edition, 1977. 2nd edition revised, 2003, p. 22. Bibliotheca Himalayica. ISBN 99933-0-378-X (South Asia); 974-524-024-9 (Outside of South Asia).
- ^ The organisers of the Committee were the Samyukta Janamorcha Nepal, the Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre), Communist Party of Nepal (Masal), the Nepal Communist League and the Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist-Maoist).
- ^ Hoftun, Martin, William Raeper and John Whelpton. People, politics and ideology: Democracy and Social Change in Nepal. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point, 1999. p. 189
- ^ http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,1699935,00.html
- ^ Nepal votes to abolish monarchy
- ^ Nepalnews.com, news from Nepal as it happens
- ^ Nepalnews.com, news from Nepal as it happens
[edit] References
- Tiwari, Sudarshan Raj (2002). The Brick and the Bull: An account of Handigaun, the Ancient Capital of Nepal. Himal Books. ISBN 99933-43-52-8.
- Kayastha, Chhatra Bahadur (2003).Nepal Sanskriti: Samanyajnan. Nepal Sanskriti. ISBN 99933-34-84-7.
[edit] External links
[edit] See also
- Sugauli Treaty
- Anglo-Nepalese War
- History of Nepal
- History of Sikkim
|
Nepal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
संघीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल Sanghiya Loktāntrik Ganatantra Nepāl Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal | ||||||
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Motto: जननी जन्मभूमिश्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी(Devanāgarī) "Mother and Motherland are Greater than Heaven" | ||||||
Anthem: "Sayaun Thunga Phool Ka" | ||||||
Capital (and largest city) | Kathmandu (Nepali: काठमांडौ) 27°42′N 85°19′E / 27.7°N 85.317°E / 27.7; 85.317 | |||||
Official languages | Nepali[1] | |||||
Recognised regional languages | Maithili, Nepal Bhasa, Bhojpuri, Tharu, Gurung, Tamang, Magar, Awadhi, Sherpa, Kiranti and other 100 different indigenous languages. | |||||
Demonym | Nepali | |||||
Government | Republic | |||||
- | President | Ram Baran Yadav | ||||
- | Vice President | Parmanand Jha | ||||
- | Prime Minister | Madhav Kumar Nepal | ||||
Unification | ||||||
- | Kingdom declared | December 21, 1768 | ||||
- | State declared | January 15, 2007 | ||||
- | Republic declared | May 28, 2008 | ||||
Area | ||||||
- | Total | 147,181 km2 (93rd) 56,827 sq mi | ||||
- | Water (%) | 2.8 | ||||
Population | ||||||
- | July 2008 estimate | 29,519,114 (40th) | ||||
- | 2007 census | 28,875,140 | ||||
- | Density | 184/km2 (56th) 477/sq mi | ||||
GDP (PPP) | 2009 estimate | |||||
- | Total | $33.024 billion[2] | ||||
- | Per capita | $1,183[2] | ||||
GDP (nominal) | 2009 estimate | |||||
- | Total | $12.521 billion[2] | ||||
- | Per capita | $449[2] | ||||
Gini (2003–04) | 47.2 (high) | |||||
HDI (2007) | ▲ 0.534 (medium) (142nd) | |||||
Currency | Rupee (NPR) | |||||
Time zone | NPT (UTC+5:45) | |||||
- | Summer (DST) | not observed (UTC+5:45) | ||||
Drives on the | left | |||||
Internet TLD | .np | |||||
Calling code | 977 |
Nepal (Nepali: नेपाल [neˈpaːl] (help·info)), officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked country in South Asia and is the world's youngest republic. It is bordered to the north by the People's Republic of China, and to the south, east, and west by the Republic of India. With an area of 147,181 square kilometers and a population of approximately 30 million, Nepal is the world's 93rd largest country by land mass[3] and the 41st most populous country. Kathmandu is the nation's capital and the country's largest metropolitan city.
Nepal is a country of highly diverse and rich geography, culture, and religions. The mountainous north contains eight of the world's ten highest mountains, including the highest, Mount Everest. The fertile and humid south is heavily urbanized. By some measures, Hinduism is practiced by a greater majority of people in Nepal than in any other nation.[4] A minority faith in the country, Buddhism is linked historically with Nepal as the birthplace of Siddhartha Gautama who, as the Buddha Gautama, gave birth to the Buddhist tradition.
Nepal had been a monarchy throughout most of its history. Prithvi Narayan Shah, a Shah dynasty king, unified the many small kingdoms in 1768. Since then, the country had been ruled by a dynasty of kings. However, a decade-long People's Revolution by the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) along with several weeks of mass protests by all major political parties of Nepal in 2006, culminated in a peace accord and the ensuing elections for the constituent assembly voted overwhelmingly in favor of the abdication of the last Nepali monarch Gyanendra Shah and the establishment of a federal democratic republic in May 28, 2008.[5] The first President of Nepal, Dr. Ram Baran Yadav was sworn in on 23 July, 2008.
Contents[hide] |
Etymology
Nepal Bhasa origin
The word "Nepal" is believed by scholars to be derived from the word "Nepa:" which refers to the Newar Kingdom, the present day Kathmandu Valley. With Sanskritization, the Newar word Nepa became Nepal.[6] The Newars of present day Nepal, refer to all the inhabitants of Kathmandu valley and its peripheries (called "Nepa:") before the advent of Shah dynasty. The Nepal Sambat calendar, named after this Newar kingdom and devised 1100 years ago, is a national calendar used in Nepal and testifies to its antiquity.
Ne Muni
Many historians and local traditions say that a Hindu sage named "Ne" established himself at the valley of Kathmandu during prehistoric times and that the word "Nepal" came into existence as the place protected ("pala" in Sanskrit) by the sage "Ne". The etymology of the name Nepal means, "the country looked after by Ne".[7]
He used to perform religious ceremonies at Teku, the confluence of the Bagmati and Bishnumati rivers.[8] He is said by legend to have selected a pious cowherd to be the first of the many kings of the Gopala Dynasty.[7] These rulers are said to have ruled Nepal for over 500 years.[9] He selected Bhuktaman to be the first king in the line of the Gopal (Cowherd) Dynasty.[8] The Gopal dynasty ruled for 621 years. Yakshya Gupta was the last king of this dynasty. However, this mythology can be challenged as no such name as Ne exists in Nepali or other Sanskrit derived languages.
According to Skanda Purana, a rishi called "Ne" or "Nemuni" used to live in Himalaya.[10] In the Pashupati Purana, he is mentioned as a saint and a protector.[11] He is said to have practiced penance at the Bagmati and Kesavati rivers[12] and to have taught his doctrines there too.[7]
Languages
Nepal's diverse linguistic heritage evolved from four major language groups: Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Burman, Mongolian and various indigenous language isolates. According to the 2001 national census, 92 different living languages are spoken in Nepal. The major languages of Nepal (percent spoken as mother tongue) are Nepali (57%)(2007 est.), Maithili (10%), Bhojpuri (7%), Tharu (4%), Tamang (5%), Newari/Nepal Bhasa (3%), Magar (2%), Awadhi (2%), Rai (2.79%), Limbu (1%), and Bajjika (1%). The remaining 81 languages are each spoken as mother tongue by less than one percent of the population. Nepal's constitution, however, guarantees that, irrespective of what the official language is, all languages spoken in Nepal can be used for official purposes and documentation.[13]
Derived from Sanskrit, Nepali is considered the language closest to Sanskrit and written in Devanagari script. Nepali is the official, national language and serves as lingua franca among Nepalis of different ethnolinguistic groups. Hindi—along with regional dialects Awadhi, Bhojpuri and Maithili—are spoken in the southern Terai Region. Hindi is also widely understood by Nepalis who have worked, studied or traveled in India. Many Nepali in government and business speak English as well. In the capital Kathmandu, Nepali, Nepal Bhasa (the Newar language) and English are the most widely understood languages.
History
Prehistory
Neolithic tools found in the Kathmandu Valley indicate that people have been living in the Himalayan region for at least 9,000 years. It appears that Kirant ethnicity people were the first people to settle in Nepal and ruled Nepal for about 2,500 years. [14]
Ancient
Terai News writes, "Nepal has been highlighted for the last several centuries in Indian Sanskrit literature like 'Skand Purana'. 'Skanda Purana' has a separate volume known as 'Nepal Mahatmya', which explains in more details about Nepal."[15] Nepal is also mentioned in Hindu scriptures such as the Narayana Puja[16] and the Atharva Siras (800-600 BC).[16] Around 1000 BC, small kingdoms and confederations of clans arose in the region. From one of these, the Shakya confederation, arose a prince named Siddharta Gautama (563–483 BC), who later renounced his royalty to lead an ascetic life and came to be known as the Buddha ("the enlightened one"). The 7th Kirata king, Jitedasti, was on the throne in the Nepal valley at the time. By 250 BC, the region came under the influence of the Mauryan empire of northern India, and later became a vassal state under the Gupta Dynasty in the fourth century AD. In the fifth century, rulers called the Licchavis governed the majority of its area. There is a good and quite detailed description of the kingdom of Nepal in the account of the renowned Chinese Buddhist pilgrim monk Xuanzang, dating from c. 645 AD.[17][18]
The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late eighth century and was followed by a Newari era, from 879, although the extent of their control over the entire country is uncertain. By the late 11th century, southern Nepal came under the influence of the Chalukaya Empire of southern India. Under the Chalukayas, Nepal's religious establishment changed as the kings patronised Hinduism instead of the prevailing Buddhism.
Medieval
By the early 12th century, leaders were emerging whose names ended with the Sanskrit suffix malla ("wrestler"). Initially their reign was marked by upheaval, but the kings consolidated their power and ruled over the next 200 years; by the late 14th century, much of the country began to come under a unified rule. This unity was short-lived; in 1482 the region was carved into three kingdoms: Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur.
Kingdom of Nepal
After centuries of petty rivalry between the three kingdoms, in the mid-18th century Prithvi Narayan Shah, a Gorkha King set out to unify the kingdoms. Seeking arms and aid from India, and buying the neutrality of bordering Indian kingdoms, he embarked on his mission in 1765. After several bloody battles and sieges, he managed to unify the Kathmandu Valley three years later in 1768. However, an actual battle never took place to conquer the Kathmandu valley; it was taken over by Prithvi Narayan and his troops without any effort, during Indra Jatra, a festival of Newars, when all the valley's citizens were celebrating the festival. This event marked the birth of the modern nation of Nepal.
There is historical evidence that, at one time, the boundary of Greater Nepal extended from the Tista River in the east to Kangara, across Sutlej River, in the west. A dispute and subsequent war with Tibet over the control of mountain passes forced the Nepalese to retreat and pay heavy reparations. Rivalry between Nepal and the British East India Company over the annexation of minor states bordering Nepal eventually led to the Anglo-Nepalese War (1815–16). The valor displayed by the Nepalese during the war astounded their enemies and earned them their image of fierce and ruthless "Gurkhas". The war ended in the Treaty of Sugauli, under which Nepal ceded recently-captured portions of Sikkim and lands in Terai to the Company.
Factionalism inside the royal family had led to a period of instability. In 1846 a plot was discovered revealing that the reigning queen had planned to overthrow Jung Bahadur Rana, a fast-rising military leader. This led to the Kot Massacre; armed clashes between military personnel and administrators loyal to the queen led to the execution of several hundred princes and chieftains around the country. Jung Bahadur Rana emerged victorious and founded the Rana lineage. The king was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British and assisted them during the Indian Sepoy Rebellion in 1857 (and later in both World Wars). The decision to help British East India Company was taken by the Rana Regime, then led by Jang Bahadur Rana. Some parts of the Terai Region were given back to Nepal by the British as a friendly gesture, because of her military help to sustain British control in India during the Sepoy Rebellion. In 1923, the United Kingdom and Nepal formally signed an agreement of friendship, in which Nepal's independence was recognized by the UK.
Slavery was abolished in Nepal in 1924.[19]
In the late 1940s, newly emerging pro-democracy movements and political parties in Nepal were critical of the Rana autocracy. Meanwhile, with the assertion of Chinese control in Tibet in the 1950s, India sought to counterbalance the perceived military threat from its northern neighbour by taking pre-emptive steps to assert more influence in Nepal. India sponsored both King Tribhuvan as Nepal's new ruler in 1951 and a new government, mostly comprising the Nepali Congress Party, thus terminating Rana hegemony in the kingdom. After years of power wrangling between the king and the government, the monarch scrapped the democratic experiment in 1959, and a "partyless" panchayat system was made to govern Nepal until 1989, when the "Jan Andolan" (People's Movement) forced the monarchy to accept constitutional reforms and to establish a multiparty parliament that took seat in May 1991.[20]
In 1996, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) started a bid to replace the royal parliamentary system with a people's socialist republic. This led to the long Nepal Civil War and more than 12,000 deaths. On June 1, 2001, there was a massacre in the royal palace; it left the King, the Queen and the Heir Apparent Crown Prince Dipendra among the dead. Prince Dipendra was accused of patricide and of committing suicide thereafter, alleged to be a violent response to his parents' refusal to accept his choice of wife. However, there is speculation and doubts among Nepalese citizens about the person(s) responsible for the Royal Massacre. Following the carnage, the throne was inherited by King Birendra's brother Gyanendra. On February 1, 2005, Gyanendra dismissed the entire government and assumed full executive powers to quash the violent Maoist movement. In September 2005, the Maoists declared a three-month unilateral ceasefire to negotiate their demands.
In response to the 2006 democracy movement, the king agreed to relinquish the sovereign power back to the people and reinstated the dissolved House of Representatives on April 24, 2006. Using its newly acquired sovereign authority, on May 18, 2006, the newly resumed House of Representatives unanimously passed a motion to curtail the power of the king and declared Nepal a secular state, abolishing its time-honoured official status as a Hindu Kingdom. On December 28, 2007, a bill was passed in parliament to amend Article 159 of the constitution - replacing "Provisions regarding the King" by "Provisions of the Head of the State" - declaring Nepal a federal republic, and thereby abolishing the monarchy.[21] The bill came into force on May 28, 2008 as a constituent assembly meeting in the capital, Kathmandu, overwhelmingly voted to abolish royal rule.[22]
Republic
The Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) won the largest number of seats in the Constituent Assembly election held on April 10, 2008 and formed a coalition government which included most of the parties in the CA. Although acts of violence occurred during the pre-electoral period, election observers noted that the elections themselves were markedly peaceful and "well-carried out."[23]
The newly elected Assembly met in Kathmandu on May 28, 2008, and, after a polling of 564 constituent Assembly members, 560 voted to end Nepal's 240 year old monarchy,[22][24] with the monarchist Rastriya Prajatantra Party, which had four members in the assembly, registering a dissent note. At that point, it was declared that Nepal had become a secular and inclusive democratic republic,[25] with the government announcing a three-day public holiday from May 28 to 30. The King was thereafter given 15 days to vacate the Narayanhiti Royal Palace, in order to re-open it as a public museum.
However, political tensions and consequent power-sharing battles have continued in Nepal. Only recently, the Maoist-led government was toppled and another coalition government with all major political parties barring the Maoists was formed. Madhav Kumar Nepal of the CPN(UML) was made the Prime Minister of the coalition government.
Geography
Geography of Nepal is uncommonly diverse. Nepal is of roughly trapezoidal shape, 800 kilometres (500 mi) long and 200 kilometres (125 mi) wide, with an area of 147,181 square kilometres (56,827 sq mi). See List of territories by size for the comparative size of Nepal.
Nepal is commonly divided into three physiographic areas: the Mountain, Hill, Siwalik region and Terai Regions. These ecological belts run east-west and are vertically intersected by Nepal's major, north to south flowing river systems.
The southern lowland Plains bordering India are part of the northern rim of the Indo-Gangetic plains. They were formed and are fed by three major rivers: the Kosi, the Narayani, and the Karnali. This region has a hot, humid climate.
The Hill Region (Pahad) abuts the mountains and varies from 1,000 to 4,000 metres (3,300–13,125 ft) in altitude. Two low mountain ranges, the Mahabharat Lekh and Shiwalik Range (also called the Churia Range) dominate the region. The hilly belt includes the Kathmandu Valley, the country's most fertile and urbanised area. Unlike the valleys called Inner Tarai (Bhitri Tarai Uptyaka), elevations above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) are sparsely populated.
The Mountain Region, situated in the Great Himalayan Range, makes up the northern part of Nepal. It contains the regions of highest altitude in the world; the world's highest mountain, 8,850 metres (29,035 ft) height Mount Everest (Sagarmatha in Nepali) is located here on the border with Tibet. Seven other of the world's ten highest mountains are located in Nepal: Lhotse, Makalu, Cho Oyu, Kanchenjunga, Dhaulagiri, Annapurna and Manaslu.
Nepal has five climatic zones, broadly corresponding to the altitudes. The tropical and subtropical zones lie below 1,200 metres (3,940 ft), the temperate zone 1,200 to 2,400 metres (3,900–7,875 ft), the cold zone 2,400 to 3,600 metres (7,875–11,800 ft), the subarctic zone 3,600 to 4,400 metres (11,800–14,400 ft), and the Arctic zone above 4,400 metres (14,400 ft).
Nepal experiences five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. The Himalaya blocks cold winds from Central Asia in the winter and forms the northern limit of the monsoon wind patterns. In a land once thickly forested, deforestation is a major problem in all regions, with resulting erosion and degradation of ecosystems.
Nepal is popular for mountaineering, containing some of the highest and most challenging mountains in the world, including Mount Everest. Technically, the south-east ridge on the Nepali side of the mountain is easier to climb; so, most climbers prefer to trek to Everest through Nepal.
Until the Sugauli Sandhi (treaty) was signed, the territory of Nepal also included Darjeeling, and Tista to the east, Nainital to the south-west and Kumaun, Garwal and Bashahar to the west. However, today these areas are a part of India. As a result, Nepal shares no boundary with Bangladesh now and the two countries are separated by a narrow strip of land about 21 kilometres (13 mi) wide, called the Siliguri Corridor or Chicken's Neck. A huge majority of Nepalese still live there (almost 2 million). Efforts are underway to make this area a free-trade zone.[26] The border dispute between India and Nepal has often been a cause of tension between the two countries.
Subdivisions
Nepal is divided into 14 zones and 75 districts, grouped into 5 development regions. Each district is headed by a permanent chief district officer responsible for maintaining law and order and coordinating the work of field agencies of the various government ministries. The 14 zones are:
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Neotectonics of Nepal
The collision between the Indian subcontinent and the Eurasian continent, which started in Paleogene time and continues today, produced the Himalaya and the Tibetan Plateau, a spectacular modern example of the effects of plate tectonics. Nepal lies completely within this collision zone, occupying the central sector of the Himalayan arc, nearly one third of the 2400 km-long Himalayas.[27]
The Indian plate continues to move north relative to Asia at the rate of ~50 mm/yr.[28] Given the great magnitudes of the blocks of the Earth's crust involved, this is remarkably fast, about twice the speed at which human fingernails grow. As the strong Indian continental crust subducts beneath the relatively weak Tibetan crust, it pushes up the Himalaya mountains. This collision zone has accommodated huge amounts of crustal shortening as the rock sequences slide one over another. Erosion of the Himalayas is a very important source of sediment, which flows via great rivers (Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra) to the Indian Ocean.[29]
Government and politics
Nepal has seen rapid political changes during the last two decades. Until 1990, Nepal was an absolute monarchy running under the executive control of the king. Faced with a people's movement against the absolute monarchy, King Birendra, in 1990, agreed to large-scale political reforms by creating a parliamentary monarchy with the king as the head of state and a prime minister as the head of the government. Nepal has also been noted for its recent spur of progressiveness, such as being one of the few countries in Asia to abolish the death penalty[30] and the first country in Asia to rule in favor of same-sex marriage, which the government has a seven-person committee studying after a November 2008 ruling by the nation's Supreme Court, which ordered full rights for LGBT individuals, including the right to marry.[31]
Nepal's legislature was bicameral, consisting of a House of Representatives called the Pratinidhi Sabha and a National Council called the Rastriya Sabha. The House of Representatives consisted of 205 members directly elected by the people. The National Council had 60 members: ten nominated by the king, 35 elected by the House of Representatives, and the remaining 15 elected by an electoral college made up of chairs of villages and towns. The legislature had a five-year term but was dissolvable by the king before its term could end. All Nepali citizens 18 years and older became eligible to vote.
The executive comprised the King and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet). The leader of the coalition or party securing the maximum seats in an election was appointed as the Prime Minister. The Cabinet was appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Governments in Nepal tended to be highly unstable, falling either through internal collapse or parliamentary dissolution by the monarch, on the recommendation of the prime minister, according to the constitution; no government has survived for more than two years since 1991.
The movement in April 2006 brought about a change in the nation's governance: an interim constitution was promulgated, with the King giving up power, and an interim House of Representatives was formed with Maoist members after the new government held peace talks with the Maoist rebels. The number of parliamentary seats was also increased to 330. In April 2007, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) joined the interim government of Nepal.
On April 10, 2008, the first election in Nepal for the constitution assembly took place. The Maoist party led the poll results but failed to gain a simple majority in the parliament.[32]
On December 10, 2007, the interim parliament passed a bill that would make Nepal a federal republic, with the Prime Minister becoming head of state. On May 28, 2008, lawmakers in Nepal legally abolished the monarchy and declared the country a republic, ending 239 years of royal rule in the Himalayan nation. The newly elected assembly, led by the former communist rebels, adopted the resolution at its first meeting by an overwhelming majority. King Gyanendra was given 15 days to leave the former Royal Palace in central Kathmandu by the Nepalese Constituent Assembly. He left the former Royal Palace on June 11.[33]
On June 26, 2008, Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala tendered his resignation to the Nepalese Constituent Assembly, which is also functioning as the Nepalese Parliament; however, a new Prime Minister has yet to be elected by the Nepalese Constituent Assembly.
On July 19, 2008, the first round of voting for the election of the country's president and vice president took place in the Constituent Assembly. Parmanand Jha became the first vice president of Nepal. However, the two presidential frontrunners, Dr. Ram Baran Yadav of Nepali Congress and the Maoist-backed candidate Ram Raja Prasad Singh, both failed to gain the minimum 298 votes needed to be elected, with Yadav receiving 283 votes and Singh receiving 270. 578 out of 594 CA members registered in the voter list had cast their votes, of which 24 were invalid.
On July 21, 2008, the second round of voting was held. Yadav received 308 of the 590 votes cast, securing his election as president.[34]
On August 15, 2008, Maoist leader Prachanda (Pushpa Kamal Dahal) was elected Prime Minister of Nepal, the first since the country's transition from a monarchy to a republic. Prachanda's election made Nepal one of only three countries that currently have democratically-elected Communist state leaders, the other two being Cyprus and Moldova. On May 4, 2009, Mr. Pushpa Kamal Dahal resigned over on-going conflicts over sacking of the Army chief.
Military and foreign affairs
Nepal's military consists of the Nepalese Army, which includes the Nepalese Army Air Service (the air force unit under it.) Nepalese Police Force is the civilian police and the Armed Police Force Nepal[35] is the paramilitary force. Service is voluntary and the minimum age for enlistment is 18 years. Nepal spends $99.2 million (2004) on its military—1.5% of its GDP. Many of the equipment and arms are imported from India. Consequently, the USA provided M16s M4s and other Colt weapons to combat communist (Maoist) insurgents. As of now, the standard-issue battle rifle of the Nepalese army is the Colt M16.[36][citation needed]
Nepal has close ties with both of its neighbours, India and China. In accordance with a long-standing treaty, Indian and Nepalese citizens may travel to each others' countries without a passport or visa. Nepalese citizens may work in India without legal restriction. Although Nepal and India typically have close ties, from time to time Nepal becomes caught up in the problematic Sino-Indian relationship. Recently, China has been asking Nepal to curb protests in Nepal against China's Policy on Tibet[37], and on April 17, 2008, police arrested over 500 Tibetan protestors[38] citing a need to maintain positive relations with China.
Terai News writes, "Being a Hindu Nation Nepal has a permanent relation, especially with the important religious places of the northern states of India. Religion has played a great role in the cultural relations between Nepal and India."[15]
Economy
Nepal's gross domestic product (GDP) for the year 2005 was estimated at just over US$39 billion (adjusted to Purchasing Power Parity), making it the 83rd-largest economy in the world. Agriculture accounts for about 40% of Nepal's GDP, services comprise 41% and industry 22%. Agriculture employs 76% of the workforce, services 18% and manufacturing/craft-based industry 6%. Agricultural produce — mostly grown in the Terai region bordering India — includes tea, rice, corn, wheat, sugarcane, root crops, milk, and water buffalo meat. Industry mainly involves the processing of agricultural produce, including jute, sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. Its workforce of about 10 million suffers from a severe shortage of skilled labour. The spectacular landscape and diverse, exotic cultures of Nepal represent considerable potential for tourism, but growth in this hospitality industry has been stifled by recent political events. The rate of unemployment and underemployment approaches half of the working-age population. Thus many Nepali citizens move to India in search of work; the Gulf countries and Malaysia being new sources of work. Nepal receives US$50 million a year through the Gurkha soldiers who serve in the Indian and British armies and are highly esteemed for their skill and bravery. The total remittance value is worth around US1 billion, including money sent from the Persian Gulf and Malaysia, who combined employ around 700,000 Nepali citizens. A long-standing economic agreement underpins a close relationship with India. The country receives foreign aid from India, Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States, the European Union, China, Switzerland, and Scandinavian countries. Poverty is acute; per-capita income is less than US$470.[39] The distribution of wealth among the Nepalis is consistent with that in many developed and developing countries: the highest 10% of households control 39.1% of the national wealth and the lowest 10% control only 2.6%.
The government's budget is about US$1.153 billion, with expenditures of $1.789 billion (FY05/06). The Nepalese rupee has been tied to the Indian Rupee at an exchange rate of 1.6 for many years. Since the loosening of exchange rate controls in the early 1990s, the black market for foreign exchange has all but disappeared. The inflation rate has dropped to 2.9% after a period of higher inflation during the 1990s.
Nepal's exports of mainly carpets, clothing, leather goods, jute goods and grain total $822 million. Import commodities of mainly gold, machinery and equipment, petroleum products and fertilizer total US$2 bn. India (53.7%), the US (17.4%), and Germany (7.1%) are its main export partners. Nepal's import partners include India (47.5%), the United Arab Emirates (11.2%), China (10.7%), Saudi Arabia (4.9%), and Singapore (4%).
Nepal remains isolated from the world's major land, air and sea transport routes although, within the country, aviation is in a better state, with 48 airports, ten of them with paved runways; flights are frequent and support a sizable traffic. The hilly and mountainous terrain in the northern two-thirds of the country has made the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. There were just over 8,500 km of paved roads, and one 59-km railway line in the south in 2003. There is only one reliable road route from India to the Kathmandu Valley. The only practical seaport of entry for goods bound for Kathmandu is Calcutta in India. Internally, the poor state of development of the road system (22 of 75 administrative districts lack road links) makes volume distribution unrealistic. Besides having landlocked, rugged geography, few tangible natural resources and poor infrastructure, the long-running civil war is also a factor in stunting the economic growth.[41]
There is less than one telephone per 19 people. Landline telephone services are not adequate nationwide but are concentrated in cities and district headquarters. Mobile telephony is in a reasonable state in most parts of the country with increased accessibility and affordability; there were around 175,000 Internet connections in 2005. After the imposition of the "state of emergency", intermittent losses of service-signals were reported, but uninterrupted Internet connections have resumed after Nepal's second major people's revolution to overthrow the King's absolute power.[42]
Demographics
Perched on the southern slopes of the Himalayan Mountains, Nepal is as ethnically diverse as its terrain of fertile plains, broad valleys, and the highest mountain peaks in the world. The Nepalese are descendants of three major migrations from India, Tibet, and North Burma and Yunnan via Assam.
Among the earliest inhabitants were the Kirat of east mid-region, Newar of the Kathmandu Valley and aboriginal Tharu in the southern Terai region. The ancestors of the Brahman and Chetri caste groups came from India's present Kumaon, Garhwal and Kashmir regions, while other ethnic groups trace their origins to North Burma and Yunnan and Tibet, e.g. the Gurung and Magar in the west, Rai and Limbu in the east (from Yunnan and north Burma via Assam), and Sherpa and Bhutia in the north (from Tibet).
In the Terai, a part of the Ganges Basin with 20% of the land, much of the population is physically and culturally similar to the Indo-Aryans of northern India. Indo-Aryan and East Asian looking mixed people live in the hill region. The mountainous highlands are sparsely populated. Kathmandu Valley, in the middle hill region, constitutes a small fraction of the nation's area but is the most densely populated, with almost 5% of the population.
Nepal is a multilingual, multireligious and multiethnic society. These data are largely derived from Nepal's 2001 census results published in the Nepal Population Report 2002.
According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Nepal hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers in 2007 numbering approximately 130,000. Of this population, approximately 109,200 persons were from Bhutan and 20,500 from People's Republic of China.[43] The government of Nepal restricted Bhutanese refugees to seven camps in the Jhapa and Morang districts, and refugees were not permitted to work in most professions.[43]
Population Structure | |
Data | Size |
---|---|
Population | 28,676,547 (2005) |
Growth Rate | 2.2% |
Population below 14 Years old | 39% |
Population of age 15 to 64 | 57.3% |
Population above 65 | 3.7% |
The median age (Average) | 20.07 |
The median age (Male) | 19.91 |
The median age (Females) | 20.24 |
Ratio (Male:Female) | 1, 000:1,060 |
Life expectancy (Average) | 59.8 Years |
Life expectancy (Male) | 60.9 |
Life expectancy (Female) | 59.5 |
Literacy Rate (Average) | 53.74% |
Literacy Rate (Male) | 68.51% |
Literacy Rate (Female) | 42.49% |
Despite the migration of a significant section of the population to the southern plains or terai in recent years, the majority of the population still lives in the central highlands. The northern mountains are sparsely populated.
Kathmandu, with a population of around 800,000 (metropolitan area: 1.5 million), is the largest city in the country.
Religion
Nepal religiosity | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
religion | percent | |||
Hinduism | | 80.6% | ||
Buddhism | | 10.7% | ||
Islam | | 4.2% | ||
Mundhum | | 3.6% | ||
Christianity | | 0.5% | ||
Other | | 0.4% | ||
The overwhelming majority in Nepal follow Hinduism. Shiva is regarded as the guardian deity of the country.[44] Nepal is home to the largest Shiva temple in the world, the famous Pashupatinath Temple, where Hindus from all over the world come for pilgrimage. According to mythology, Sita Devi of the epic Ramayana was born in the Mithila Kingdom of King Janaka Raja.
Near the Indian border, Lumbini, is a Buddhist pilgrimage site and UNESCO World Heritage Site site in the Kapilavastu district. It is held to be the birthplace in about 563 B.C. of Siddhartha Gautama, a Kshatriya caste prince of the Sakya clan, who, as the Buddha Gautama, gave birth to the Buddhist tradition. The holy site of Lumbini is bordered by a large monastic zone, in which only monasteries can be built. All three main branches of Buddhism exist in Nepal and the Newar people have their own branch of the faith. Buddhism is the dominant religion of the thinly-populated northern areas, which are inhabited by Tibetan-related peoples, such as the Sherpa.
The Buddha, born as a Hindu, is also said to be a descendant of Vedic Sage Angirasa in many Buddhist texts.[45] The Buddha's family surname is associated with Gautama Maharishi.[46] Differences between Hindus and Buddhists have been moderated in Nepal due to the cultural and historical intermingling of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. In Nepal, the faiths share some common temples and worship common deities. Among other natives of Nepal, those more influenced by Hinduism were the Magar, Sunwar, Limbu and Rai and the Gurkhas. Hindu influence is less prominent among the , Gurung, Bhutia, and Thakali groups who employ Buddhist monks for their religious ceremonies.[14][42] Most of the festivals in Nepal are Hindu.[47] The Machendrajatra festival, dedicated to Hindu Shaiva Siddha, is celebrated by many Buddhists in Nepal as a main festival.[48] As it is believed that Ne Muni established Nepal,[49] some important priests in Nepal are called "Tirthaguru Nemuni".
Culture
Nepalese culture is diverse, reflecting different ethnic origins of the people. The Newar community is particularly rich in cultural diversity; they celebrate many festivals, well known for their music and dance.
A typical Nepalese meal is dal-bhat-tarkari. Dal is a spicy lentil soup, served over bhat (boiled rice), served with tarkari (curried vegetables) together with achar (pickles) or chutni (spicy condiment made from fresh ingredients).. The Newar community, however, has its own unique cuisine. It consists of non-vegetarian as well as vegetarian items served with alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages. Mustard oil is the cooking medium and a host of spices, such as cumin, coriander, black peppers, sesame seeds, turmeric, garlic, ginger, methi (fenugreek), bay leaves, cloves, cinnamon, pepper, chillies, mustard seeds, etc., are used in the cooking. The cuisine served on festivals is generally the best.
The Newari Music orchestra consists mainly of percussion instruments, though wind instruments, such as flutes and other similar instruments, are also used. String instruments are very rare. There are songs pertaining to particular seasons and festivals. Paahan chare music is probably the fastest played music whereas the Dapa the slowest. There are certain musical instruments such as Dhimay and Bhusya which are played as instrumental only and are not accompanied with songs. The dhimay music is the loudest one. In the hills, people enjoy their own kind of music, playing saarangi (a string instrument), madal and flute. They also have many popular folk songs known as lok geet and lok dohari.
The Newar dances can be broadly classified into masked dances and non-masked dances. The most representative of Newari dances is Lakhey dance. Almost all the settlements of Newaris organise Lakhey dance at least once a year, mostly in the Goonlaa month. So, they are called Goonlaa Lakhey. However, the most famous Lakhey dance is the Majipa Lakhey dance; it is performed by the Ranjitkars of Kathmandu and the celeberation continues for the entire week that contains the full moon of Yenlaa month. The Lakhey are considered to be the saviors of children.
Folklore is an integral part of Nepalese society. Traditional stories are rooted in the reality of day-to-day life, tales of love, affection and battles as well as demons and ghosts and thus reflect local lifestyles, cultures and beliefs. Many Nepalese folktales are enacted through the medium of dance and music.
The Nepali year begins in mid-April and is divided into 12 months. Saturday is the official weekly holiday. Main annual holidays include the National Day, celebrated on the birthday of the king (December 28), Prithvi Jayanti (January 11), Martyr's Day (February 18), and a mix of Hindu and Buddhist festivals such as dashain in autumn, and tihar in late autumn. During tihar, the Newar community also celebrates its New Year as per their local calendar Nepal Sambat.
Most houses in rural lowland of Nepal are made up of a tight bamboo framework and walls of a mud and cow-dung mix. These dwellings remain cool in summer and retain warmth in winter. Houses in the hills are usually made of unbaked bricks with thatch or tile roofing. At high elevations construction changes to stone masonry and slate may be used on roofs.
Nepal's flag is the only national flag in the world that is non-quadrilateral in shape, and one of only two non-rectangular flags in use (the other being the flag of the U.S. state of Ohio). According to its official description, the red in the flag stands for victory in war or courage, and is also color of the rhododendron, the national flower of Nepal. Red also stands for aggression. The flag's blue border signifies peace. The curved moon on the flag is a symbol of the peaceful and calm nature of Nepalese, while the sun represents the aggressiveness of Nepalese warriors.
See also
Notes
- ^ According to Interim Constitution Nepali is only the official language (article 5, point 2). Other languages spoken as the mother tongue in Nepal are the national languages (article 5, point 1). According to article 5, point 3, all languages are accepted as official languages at the regional level. Besides, this part of the article is about native names and not about official language. The constitution does not state that Nepal written in Devanagari is the official name. Nepal_Interim_Constitution2007
- ^ a b c d "Nepal". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=558&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=41&pr.y=11. Retrieved on 2009-04-22.
- ^ "The World Factbook : Rank order population". CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html.
- ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/np.html#People CIA Factbook, Nepal, "People" section
- ^ "Nepal's first president sworn in". Radio Australia. 2008-07-24. http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/stories/200807/s2312720.htm?tab=asia.
- ^ Newa-Author:Shrestha, Moolookha Publication
- ^ a b c W.B., P. 34 Land of the Gurkhas
- ^ a b The Ancient Period
- ^ Balfour, P. 195 Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, :
- ^ Alone In Kathmandu
- ^ Prasad, P. 4 The life and times of Maharaja Juddha Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana of Nepal
- ^ Khatri, P. 16 The Postage Stamps of Nepal
- ^ Interim Constitution of Nepal, Article 5, point 3
- ^ a b "A Country Study: Nepal". Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/nptoc.html. Retrieved on 2005-09-23.
- ^ a b Terai News
- ^ a b P. 17 Looking to the Future: Indo-Nepal Relations in Perspective By Lok Raj Baral
- ^ Li, Rongxi (translator). 1995. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions, pp. 219-220. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California. ISBN 1-886439-02-8
- ^ Watters, Thomas. 1904-5. On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India (A.D. 629-645), pp. 83-85. Reprint: Mushiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi. 1973.
- ^ Tucci, Giuseppe. (1952). Journey to Mustang, 1952. Trans. by Diana Fussell. 1st Italian edition, 1953; 1st English edition, 1977. 2nd edition revised, 2003, p. 22. Bibliotheca Himalayica. ISBN 99933-0-378-X (South Asia); 974-524-024-9 (Outside of South Asia).
- ^ "Timeline: Nepal". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1166516.stm. Retrieved on 2005-09-29.
- ^ Nepal votes to abolish monarchy - CNN
- ^ a b Nepal votes to abolish monarchy - CNN
- ^ The Carter Center. ""Activities by Country: Nepal"". http://www.cartercenter.org/countries/nepal.html. Retrieved on 2008-07-17.
- ^ http://www.kantipuronline.com/kolnews.php?nid=148454
- ^ "Nepal abolishes its monarchy". Al Jazeera. May 28, 2008. http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/0A9B5B1F-5BF2-4ACB-A159-700F21DAD3C4.htm. Retrieved on 2008-05-29.
- ^ Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan and India to set up FTA
- ^
- Beek van der Peter,Xavier Robert, Jean-Louis Mugnier, Matthias Bernet, Pascale Huyghe and Erika Labrin, "Late Miocene- Recent Exhumation of the Central Himalaya and Recycling in the Foreland Basin Assessed by Apatite Fission-Track Thermochronology of Siwalik Sediments, Nepal," Basic research, 18, 413-434, 2006.
- Berger Antoine, Francois Jouanne, Riadm Hassani and Jean Louis Mugnier, "Modelling the Spatial Distribution of Present day Deformation in Nepal: how cylindrical is the Main Himalayan Thrust in Nepal?", Geophys.J.Int., 156, 94-114, 2004.
- Bilham Roger and Michael Jackson,"Constraints on Himalayan Deformation inferred from Vertical Velocity Fields in Nepal and Tibet," Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 99, 897-912, 10 July, 1994.
- Chamlagain Deepak and Daigoro Hayashi, "Neotectonic Fault Analysis by 2D Finite Element Modeling for Studying the Himalayan Fold and Thrust belt in Nepal," University of the Ryukyus,Okinawa, Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 1-16, 14 July 2006.
- F. Jouanne et al., "Current Shortening Across the Himalayas of Nepal", Geophys.J.Int., 154, 1-14, 2004.
- Pandey M.R, R.P. Tandukar, J.P. Avouac, J. Vergne and Th. Heritier, "Seismotectonics of the Nepal Himalaya from a Local Seismic Network", Journal of Asian Earth Sciences,17, 703-712,1999.
- ^ Bilham et al., 1998; Pandey et al., 1995.
- ^ Summerfield & Hulton, 1994; Hay, 1998.
- ^ Death Penalty Statistics 2006
- ^ Progress in new Republic of Nepal
- ^ Nepal's election The Maoists triumph | Economist.com
- ^ Nepal's Lawmakers Abolish the Country's Monarchy
- ^ http://www.presidentofnepal.com
- ^ Official Website of Armed Police Force Nepal
- ^ www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl31599.pdf
- ^ China urges Nepal to act on Tibet - BBC News
- ^ Nepal Arrests Tibetan Protesters - BBC News
- ^ "Nepal". Factbook on Global Sexual Exploitation. http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/nepal.htm. Retrieved on 2005-09-23.
- ^ "Nepal king's head spared on new banknotes". http://sundaytimes.lk/071007/International/international00009.html. Retrieved on 2007-10-07.
- ^ "Nepal: Economy". MSN Encarta. 3. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562648_3/Nepal.html. Retrieved on 2005-09-23.
- ^ a b "Nepal". CIA World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/np.html. Retrieved on 2005-09-23.
- ^ a b "World Refugee Survey 2008". U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. 2008-06-19. http://www.refugees.org/survey.
- ^ Anthologia anthropologica. The native races of Asia and Europe; by James George Frazer, Sir; Robert Angus Downie
- ^ The Life of Buddha as Legend and History, by Edward Joseph Thomas
- ^ P. 95 A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms By James Legge
- ^ Festivals of Nepal
- ^ P. 885 Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part 10 By James Hastings
- ^ Wright, P. 107, History of Nepal: With an Introductory Sketch of the Country and People of Nepal
References
- Shaha, Rishikesh (1992). Ancient and Medieval Nepal. New Delhi: Manohar Publications. ISBN 8185425698.
- Tiwari, Sudarshan Raj (2002). The Brick and the Bull: An account of Handigaun, the Ancient Capital of Nepal. Himal Books. ISBN 9993343528.
- "Nepal". MSN Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562648_3/Nepal.html. Retrieved on 2005-09-23.
- "India Nepal Open Border". Nepal Democracy. http://www.nepaldemocracy.org/documents/treaties_agreements/nep_india_open_border.htm. Retrieved on 2005-09-23.
- "Football at the heart of the Himalaya". FIFA. http://www.fifa.com/en/regulations/magazine/index/0,1569,102162,00.html?articleid=102162. Retrieved on 2005-09-23.
- "Nepal: Information Portal". Explore Nepal. http://www.explorenepal.com. Retrieved on 2007-09-01.
- "The Best Memoir You Never Heard Of: "Shadow Over Shangri-La"". San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/11/12/RVGJ6M4RGA1.DTL.
- "Nepal: A state under siege". The South Asian: Featured Articles. http://www.thesouthasian.org/archives/000155.html. Retrieved on 2005-09-23.
- "Nepal: Basic Fact Sheet". Nepal homepage. http://www.nepalhomepage.com/general/glance.html. Retrieved on 2005-09-23.
- "Jailed ex-PM in Nepal court plea". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4194160.stm. Retrieved on 2005-09-29.
- "Nepal's new emblem". Citizen Journalism Nepal. http://www.cjnepal.org/story/547/nepals-new-emblem. Retrieved on 2007-02-07.
- Gotz Hagmuller (2003). Patan Museum: The Transformation of a Royal Palace in Nepal. London: Serindia. ISBN 0962658X.
- Kunda Dixit (2006). A people war: Images of the Nepal conflict 1996–2006. Kathmandu: nepa-laya.
- Barbara Crossette (1995). So Close to Heaven: The Vanishing Buddhist Kingdoms of the Himalayas. New York: Vintage. ISBN 0679743634.
- Bista, Dor Bahadur (1967). People of Nepal. Dept. of Publicity, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of Nepal. ISBN 9993304182.
- Michael Hutt, ed., Himalayan 'people's war' : Nepal's Maoist rebellion, London: C. Hurst, 2004
- Peter Matthiessen (1993). The Snow Leopard. Penguin. ISBN 0002720256.
- Joe Simpson (1997). Storms of Silence. Mountaineers Books. ISBN 0898865123.
- Samrat Upadhyay (2001). Arresting God in Kathmandu. Mariner Books. ISBN 0618043713.
- Joseph R. Pietri (2001). The King of Nepal. Indianapolis, IN: Indiana Creative Arts. ISBN 061511928X.
- Maurice Herzog (1951). Annapurna. The Lyons Press. ISBN 1558215492.
- Dervla Murphy (1968). The Waiting Land: A Spell in Nepal. Transatlantic Arts. ISBN 0719517451.
- Rishikesh Shaha (2001). Modern Nepal: A Political History. Manohar Publishers and Distributors. ISBN 8173044031.
External links
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
- Government of Nepal
- Chief of State and Cabinet Members
- Planet Nepal Nepal Encyclopedia Project
- Nepal entry at The World Factbook
- Nepal from UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Nepal at the Open Directory Project
- Wikimedia Atlas of Nepal
- Nepal travel guide from Wikitravel
- National Geographic Country Profile: Nepal
- Languages of Nepal from the Ethnologue
- The Carter Center information on Nepal
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Coordinates: 26°32′N 86°44′E / 26.533°N 86.733°E / 26.533; 86.733
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