Global Hindu Imperialism !http://www.sanghparivar.org/blog/rkm/global-hindu-imperialism Submitted by rkm on Mon, 08/10/2009 - 08:36. |
When "Prem Nagar" aka Prey Nokor (in Khmer) was burning foolish, ignorant Bengali Hindus of Kolkata were crying hoarse about Ho Chi Minh City (same city named such after occupation by Vietnamese, a Chinese tribe from north since genociode of Hindu Champa citizens of Central & South Vietnam who with US help could have gained freedom from Communists). Nothing more is expected from we Leftist Bengalis but a tour into Hindu Vietnam for interested Hindus.
Modern Bengalis don't deserve to be called Hindus but remember our very ancient West Bengali Hindus of Anga Kingdom with capital Champa (then at Bhagalpur) built the imperial colony of Champa in Vietnam for 700 years before being occupied by northern Vietnamese tribes & ultimate destruction and genocide so much so that Vietnam who gained on our blood is today world's 13 largest populous country while only 2 lakh Hindu Chams still survive in Vietnam, any wonder why and how Hindus decreased to only 13% of world population! http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prey_Nokor
Similiarly, Hindus from Kambhoj i.e, modern Peshawar established Hindu Kingdom in Cambodia (Kambhoj spelled Kampuchiea in Khmer-Mon Hindu language now mostly converted to Buddhism) and Angkor Vat and 50,000 Hindu Khmers still speak of our glorious past beside innumerable ruins of Hindu Mandirs.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus#The_Kingdom_of_Champa
http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/vietnam-cambodia/583
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champa
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_Empire
http://www.blurrytravel.com/sea2003/journal/07152003/07152003.html
Brahmin Hindu Chams make 15% while 85% others have converted to Islam to avoid extreme atrocities by Buddhist conquering tribes who have almost disappeared this largest race of Hindus in southeast Asia now numbering total only 1 million - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chams#Today
Latvian and Lithuanians -
The Latvian language belongs to the Baltic group of the Indo-European family of languages. Its closest and only living relative is Lithuanian (Latvian is a non-Slavic and a non-Germanic language). Latvian has inherited a lot from the Indo-European Sanskrit, and as well as Lithuanian, it has preserved a lot of archaic features in its sound system and grammar.
The Latvian and Lithuanian languages are among the oldest languages in the world. These languages are closely related but are not the same. Latvian endings for nouns, for example, are shorter than Lithuanian nouns. Latvian and Lithuanian are the only remnants of the ancient Indo-European language related to Sanskrit (Thieme, 1958). Estonian is more closely related to Finnish and is part of the Baltic-Finnic branch of the Uralic languages, which also relates to the Hungarian language (Raun, 1991).
Language Saying
Latvian: Dievs deva zobus, Dievs dos maizes donu
Lithuanian: Dievas davė dantis, Dievas duos duonos
Sanskrit: Devas adāt datas, Devas dāsyati dhānās
Russian: [Bog dal zubi, Bog dast hlyeb]
German: Gott gab die Zähne, Gott wird das Brot geben
Meaning in English: God gave teeth, God will give bread
Next I will compare some verb conjugations in Sanskrit, Lithuanian, Greek and Latin. One of the most striking examples is the present tense conjugation of the verb 'to bei or 'is, are.' I must point out first that apparently Proto-Indo-European had a category denoting two items, in addition to a category denoting singular and plural such as we have in English. This is called the dual. It may be hard to understand why this was necessary, since in English we get along quite well with only the singular and the plural. On the other hand, speakers of certain oriental languages wonder why it is necessary to distinguish all the time between singular and plural. A real need to distinguish singular and plural arises very occasionally. Be that as it may, Sanskrit, Lithuanian and ancient Greek have this extra, and from our point of view, superfluous category. Compare then, the following conjugations:
Sanskrit
Lithuanian
Singular
1st as-mi 'I am'
2nd asi 'thou art'
3rd as-ti 'he, she, it is'
1st es-ù (older es-mi)
2nd es-ì (<*es-si)
3rd ẽs-ti 'there is'
Dual
s-vah 'we two are'
s-thah 'you two are'
s-tah 'they two are'
ẽs-ava (older es-va)
ẽs-ata (older es-ta)
——————
Plural
s-mah 'we are' (more than two)
s-tha 'you are' (more than two)
s-anti 'they are' (more than two)
ẽs-ame (older es-me)
ẽs-ate (older es-te) ——————
(yra 'is, are' may be an innovation or may be an ancient inheritance) (Contemporary Lithuanian does not distinguish any number in the third person verbal forms.)
The Indian or Aistian peoples (Aestiorum gentes) first appear on the historical scene in chapter XLV of Cornelius Tacitus' Germania. Tacitus wrote, "Passing then to the east along the shore of the Suebic (Baltic — WRS) sea, we find the tribes of the Aestii, who have the same observances and general appearance as the Suebi, while their language is more like the British tongue. They worship the Mother of the Gods. As the symbol of their religion they carry figures of boars. They believe that, without weapons or protection of any other kind, this charm preserves a devotee of the goddess from harm even among his enemies. They rarely use iron weapons, far more frequently clubs. They labour at the cultivation of crops and fruit trees with a perseverance which is in contrast with the usual indolence of the Germans. They also scour the sea, and are the only people who gather amber. They themselves call it glesum and they find it in the shallow water or actually on the shore. Like barbarians they have never discovered or inquired by what natural process it is produced." (Translation from Fyfe, 1908, 117.)
Azerbaijan -
Azerbaijan has been tied to cultural diffusion on the Silk Road. The major center center for Hinduism in the region was Surakhani, the site of the Atashgah mandir.
In the Middle Ages, Hindu traders visited Azerbaijan for Silk Road trade. The area was traversed by Hindu traders coming mostly from Multan and Sindh. The Atashgah (in Surakhani) was created for those traders to worship while in the area. Most of the traders left after the advent of the British Raj. The ceremonies were officiated by a Punjabi pandit [2]. The locals of the Surakhani also worshiiped at the local mandir, and the population of Hindus swelled [3]
In the 1880's the Czar of Russia, Alexander III went to Azerbaijan to witness one of the last Hindu ceremonies performed there. After the 1890's nearly all of the original Hindus in Azerbaijan had passed away or left for India. [4]
Tajikistan -
The Tocharians or Tusharas as known in Indian literature were the easternmost speakers of an Indo-European language in antiquity, inhabiting the Tarim basin and Pamir region in what is now Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, northwestern People's Republic of China. Their unique culture spanned from the 1st millennium BC to the end of the 1st millennium AD. Their language is called Tocharian. Their descendants are the Tajiks of Tajikistan.
Sanskrit literature in numerous instances refers to the Tocharians as Tusharas, Tukharas, Tokharas and Tuharas etc.
The Atharavaveda-Parishishta [1] associates the Tusharas with the Sakas, Yavanas and the Bahlikas [2]. It also juxtaposes the Kambojas with the Bahlikas [3]. This shows the Tusharas probably were neighbors to the Shakas, Bahlikas, Yavanas and the Kambojas in Transoxian region.
The Rishikas are said to be same people as the Yuezhis [4]. The Kushanas or Kanishkas are also the same people [5]. Prof Stein says that the Tukharas (Tokharois/Tokarais) were a branch of the Yue-chi or Yuezhi[6]. Prof P. C. Bagchi holds that the Yuezhi, Tocharioi and Tushara were identical [7]. Thus, the Rishikas, Tusharas/Tukharas (Tokharoi/Tokaroi), Kushanas and the Yuezhis probably were either a single people, or members of a confederacy. But based on the syntactical construction of the Mahabharata verse 5.5.15 [8] and v 2.27.25 [9], outstanding Sanskrit scholars like prof. Ishwa Mishra believe that the Rishikas were a section of the Kambojas i.e Parama Kambojas.
Philippines -
Historians speculate that the Philippines was under the Sri Vijaya Empire from the 4th to the 10th centuries. The Laguna Copperplate Inscription, partly in Sanskrit and party in local languages, dated to April 21, 900 C.E. mentions a pardon by the Commander in Chief of Tundun, represented by the Lord Minister of Pailah, Jayadewa.
Before the Spanish colonial period, the archipelagos of Southeast Asia were under the influence of the traders of Hindu-Malayan culture, such as the Majapahit Empire, which was being supplanted by Islamic conquest by the Sultanates of Malacca, who had converted from Hinduism to Islam in 1414, and of Borneo. In the Majapahit Empire the last Hindu kings in about 1500 retreated to Bali in order to keep their culture. Influences from the subcontinent may be traced earlier before the arrivals of the Arabs and the Europeans during the 1400s and 1500s respectively. The rulers of many of the islands were called Rajas, or Rajahs. he central region, Visayas, is said to be named after the last Southeast Hindu Prince Sri Vijaya who converted to Islam after which the local Filipinos were in the process of converting to Islam. Islamization was also halted by the colonizing Catholic Spaniards.
Malayasia -
Hinduism was more prevalent in Malaysia prior to the arrival of Islam in the 15th century. Traces of Hindu influence remain in the Malay language, literature and art.
The last prince of the Srivijayan kingdom of Sumatra, after the loss to the Majapahit, founded the Sultanate of Malacca on the Straits of Malacca between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. He later converted to Islam in 1414. As the Portuguese came to trade for spices, they began to ally with the Islamic powers, which did not help the Majapahit. One third of the Bataks, particularly the Toba and Karo Bataks.
Indian settlers came to Malaysia from Tamil Nadu in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Many of these came to work as labourers on rubber plantations, while those who were English-educated occupied more professional positions. A minority of Indian immigrants to Malaysia during this time period came from Northern India and Sri Lanka.
Indonesia -
Hinduism in Indonesia, also known by its formal Indonesian name Agama Hindu Dharma, refers to Hinduism as practised in Indonesia. It is practised by 93% of the population of Bali, but also in Sumatra, Java (especially by the Tenggerese people on the east), Lombok and Kalimantan. Although only about 3% of Indonesian population is officially Hindu, Indonesian beliefs are too complex to classify as belonging to a single world religion. In Java in particular, a substantial number of Muslims follow a non-orthodox, Hindu-influenced form of Islam known as 'Islam Abangan' or 'Islam Kejawèn', while across the archipelago the Hindu legacy, along with the older mystic traditions, influences popular beliefs.
The Singhasari kingdom fell to Kediri. The last Singhasari king's son-in-law, Wijaya took over the kingdom by allying himself with the Mongols in 1293 and created the Majapahit kingdom. The Majapahit then turned on Kublai Khan's forces and drove them out. This established Majapahit hegemony over Java. Today there are a few remaining Hindu communities in Java. The Tenggerese, some Osings, and to some extent the Baduis are still Hindus.
Both Java and Sumatra were subject to considerable cultural influence from the Indian subcontinent during the first and second millennia of the Common Era. Many Hindu temples were built, including Prambanan near Yogyakarta, which has been designated a World Heritage Site; and Hindu kingdoms flourished, of which the most important was Majapahit.
In the sixth and seventh centuries many maritime kingdoms arose in Sumatra and Java which controlled the waters in the Straits of Malacca and flourished with the increasing sea trade between China and India and beyond. During this time, scholars from India and China visited these kingdoms to translate literary and religious texts.
Majapahit was based in Central Java, from where it ruled a large part of what is now western Indonesia. The remnants of the Majapahit kingdom shifted to Bali during the sixteenth century as Muslim kingdoms in the western part of the island gained influence.
Pakistan -
Hinduism, once the main religion in Pakistan, has endured many conquests and invasions, different rulers, and ultimately political separation from the Hindu-majority India.
In August 1947, at the end of British Raj, the population percentage of Hindus in what is today Pakistan was as high as 25%, but would drop to its current total of less than 2 % in the years since partition. It remains the hope of many that a permanent peace between India and Pakistan will go a long way in making life better for the roughly 3 million Hindus living in Pakistan. The 1998 census recorded 2,443,614 Hindus in Pakistan.
The Sindh kingdom and its rulers play an important role in the Indian epic story of the Mahabharata. In addition, there is the legend that the Pakistani city of Lahore was first founded by Lava, the son of Rama of the Ramayana. The Gandhara kingdom of the Northwest, and the legendary Gandhara peoples are also a major part of Hindu literature such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
In Tharparkar district of Sindh adjoining India, Hindu percentage is highest at 40.5% and in Badin district of same province of Sindh they are 18.5%. Sindh has the highest percentage of Hindus at 7.5%.
Tibet -
Even though Hinduism and Buddhism are essentially two different beliefs (as mentioned above), in the modern world many Tibetan Buddhists are influenced by Hindu ideals and take part in Hindu religious gatherings and discussions. It is believed that this had resulted from the increase of Tibetan refugees (including that of the Dalai Lama) in India after the People's Republic of China's occupation of Tibet to prevent Tibet from successfully declaring independence. An example of Hindu influence on Tibetan Buddhists is the practice of Yoga, which originated as a major spiritual tradition within the Hindu society, though is practiced among Buddhists throughout Tibet in China. Even with the influence in the Modern China, Hinduism is still a very minor religion in China, practiced among only a few believers.
Bangladesh -
Hinduism is the second largest religious affiliation in Bangladesh, covering about 10.5% of the population as of 1991 census reduced from 30% at 1947 during partition with India. Bangladeshi Hinduism closely resembles the forms and customs of Hinduism practised in neighbouring West Bengal, with which Bangladesh was united until the partition of India in 1947.
The Bangladesh Liberation War resulted in one of the largest genocides of the 20th Century. While the number of casulaties is 3,000,000 and 80% of them were Hindus who bore a disproportionate brunt of the Pakistan Army's onslaught against the Bengali population of what was East Pakistan. Also, 1,00,00,000 Hindus fled Bangladesh permanently to settle in India.
An article in Time magazine dated August 2, 1971, stated "The Hindus, who account for three-fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Muslim military hatred."
Cambodia -
Cambodia was first influenced by Hinduism during the beginning of the Funan kingdom. Hinduism was one of the Khmer Empire's official religions. Combodia is the home to one of the only two temples dedicated to Brahma in the world. Angkor Wat is also a famous Hindu temple of Combodia.
Laos -
Laos used to part of Khmer Empire. The Wat Phou is one of the last influences of that period. The Laotion adaption of the Ramayana is called Phra Lak Phra Lam.
Mayanmar -
Hinduism in Myanmar is practised by less than 2% of the population (approximately 240,000), with most practioners being Burmese Indians. Because a reliable census has not been taken in Myanmar since colonial times, the given figures are rough estimates. Despite its minority designation today, Hinduism has been greatly influential in Burmese history and literature. Hinduism, along with Buddhism, greatly influenced the royal court of Burmese kings in pre-colonial times, as seen in the architecture of cities such as Bagan. Likewise, the Burmese language contains many loanwords from Sanskrit and Pali, many of which relate to religion. Several aspects of Hinduism can be found in Myanmar today. In nat worship, which is practised by the dominant Bamar ethnic group, Burmese adaptations of Hindu gods are worshipped. For example, the king of the nats, Thagyamin, is identified with the Hindu god Indra. Burmese literature has also been enriched by Hinduism, including the Burmese adaption of the Ramayana, called Yama Zatdaw. Many Hindu gods are likewise worshipped by Burmese Buddhists, including Saraswati (known as Thuyathadi in Burmese), the goddess of knowledge, who is often worshipped before examinations.
Thailand -
A number of Hindus remain in Thailand. They are mostly located in the cities. In the past, the nation came under the influence of the Khmer Empire, which had strong Hindu roots. The epic, Ramakien, is based on the Ramayana. The city, Ayutthaya, is named after Ayodhya, the birthplace of Rama. Numerous rituals derived from Brahminism are preserved in rituals, such as use of holy strings and pouring of lustral water from conch shells. Furthermore, Hindu deities are worshipped by many Thais alongside Buddhism, such as the famous Erawan shrine, and statues of Ganesh, Indra, and Shiva, as well as numerous symbols relating to Hindu deities are found, e.g., Garuda, a symbol of the monarchy.
Afghanistan -
Hinduism in Afghanistan has existed for almost as long as Hinduism itself. The religion was widespread in the region until the advent of Islam.
Hinduism in Afghanistan dates back to the Vedic periods when both countries shared a common culture. Along with Buddhism and Zoroastrianism, Hinduism was among the most practiced religions among the local people, who were a heterogeneous mix of Iranian, Nurestani and Indo-Aryan background. The Hindu Shahi Kings ruled Afghanistan till 10th century AD. Afghanistan gradually converted to Islam with the Islamic conquest.The Hindu-Sikh population in Afghanistan in 1990 was estimated to number around 30,000. It is also worth noting that Afghan Hindus and Afghan Sikhs often share places of worship [1]. The main ethnic groups in Afganistan which practice Hinduism are the Punjabis, Sindhis, Kabulis, and Kandharis.
Iran -
In ancient Iran/Persia and India a set that is common to all may be reconstructed. This set is then what is in academic circles recognized as the beliefs of the Proto-Indo-Iranians, and from which the various religions of the various Indo-Iranian peoples then descended. Divinities and divine concepts that can be reconstructed for this hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranian religion include *rta (Vedic rta, Avestan asha), *sauma (Vedic Soma, Avestan Haoma), *mitra (Vedic Mitra, Avestan Mithra).
However, the beliefs developed in different ways as cultures separated and evolved. For example, while in 'Indic' branch Bhaga is a divinity in its own right, in the Iranian branch 'Baga' is a generic term for a (otherwise nameless) deity or group of deities. Similarly, the cosmological mythology of the peoples that remained on the Central Asian steppes is to a great degree unlike that of the Indians, perhaps in part because the Indians tended to focus on the divinities individually, while in Iranian lore the greater scheme - in which the divinities each play a part - gained the attention. By the time of Zoroaster, Iranian culture had also been subject to the upheavals of the Iranian Heroic Age (late Iranian Bronze Age, 1800-800 BCE), an influence that the Indians were not subject to. Moreover, the Indians, unlike the more conservative Iranians, were quite creative in their treatment of their divinities. As a result, the figures with conflated with others, or hypostatical splitting occurred, that is, aspects of a divinity developed into divinities in their own right.
Sometimes legends developed into stories altogether different from their counterparts: For example, Rig-Vedic Saraswati is linguistically and functionally cognate with Avestan *Haravati Aredvi Sura Anahita. In the Rig-Veda (6,61,7) she battles a serpent called Vritra, who has hoarded all of the earth's water. In contrast, Iranian *Haravati is the world-river that flows down from the mythical Mount Hara upon which the world rests. But *Haravati does no battle - she is blocked by an obstacle (Avestan for obstacle: verethra) placed there by Ahriman. This tale, already attested in a very early portion of the Avesta, remained in common use as late as the 1st century CE, for from that century we have a Greek inscription dedicated to "Great Anaitis of High Hara". Avestan Verethra is also evident in the name Bahrain, the city next to the great barrier that divides the Persian gulf into two.
Maldives -
"Maldives" derives from the Sanskrit maladvipa, meaning "garland of islands."Historians have established that by the fourth century A.D. Theravada Buddhism originating from Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka) became the dominant religion of the people of Maldives. Some scholars believe that the name "Maldives" derives from the Sanskrit maladvipa, meaning "garland of islands." In the mid-1980s, the Maldivian government allowed the noted explorer and expert on early marine navigation, Thor Heyerdahl, to excavate ancient sites. Heyerdahl studied the ancient mounds, called hawitta by the Maldivians, found on many of the atolls. Some of his archaeological discoveries of stone figures and carvings from pre-Islamic civilizations are today exhibited in a side room of the small National Museum on Male.
Heyerdahl's research indicates that as early as 2,000 B.C. Maldives lay on the maritime trading routes of early Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Indus Valley civilizations. Heyerdahl believes that early sun-worshipping seafarers, called the Redin, first settled on the islands. Even today, many mosques in Maldives face the sun and not Mecca, lending credence to this theory. Because building space and materials were scarce, successive cultures constructed their places of worship on the foundations of previous buildings. Heyerdahl thus surmises that these sun-facing mosques were built on the ancient foundations of the Redin culture temples who were Hindu Indians settled in the islands.
Modern Turkey, i.e Anatolia is the original Homeland of neither Greeks nor Turks but, ancient Indian Immigrants called Hurrians (Mittani, Hittites, etc) whose descendants are the Kurds fighting for Kurdistan against the repressive governments of Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Syria
Most of the area of modern Turkey, i.e Anatolia is the original Homeland of neither Greeks nor Turks but, ancient Indian Immigrants called Hurrians (Mittani, Hittites, etc) whose descendants are the Kurds fighting for Kurdistan against the repressive governments of Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Syria. They were later subdued by Greeks and Turks.
Go to fullsize image Go to fullsize image
These evidences also shows that so called Aryans are the original Indians and the Aryan invasion is a hoax since Indian Civilization is much more older than Indus Valley Civilization, while the so called Dravidian civilization entered India from Iran via Pakistan (remember the Dravidian Brahui people of Baluchistan). The Tamils of Sri Lanka is demanding Tamil Elam meaning Tamil Country. Elam in Dravidian tongue means country or land.
Elam
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Elamites)
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Elam (disambiguation).
History of Iran
Empires of Persia - Kings of Persia
* Proto-Elamite civilization (3200–2700 BCE)
* Jiroft civilization (3000–5th c. BCE)
* Elamite dynasties (2700–539 BCE)
* Kingdom of Mannai (10th–7th c. BCE)
* Median Empire (728–550 BCE)
* Achaemenid Empire (648–330 BCE)
* Seleucid Empire (330–150 BCE)
* Parthian Empire (250 BCE– 226 CE)
* Sassanid Dynasty (226–650)
* Islamic conquest (637–651)
* Tahirid dynasty (821–873)
* Alavid dynasty (864–928)
* Saffarid dynasty (861–1003)
* Samanid dynasty (875–999)
* Ziyarid dynasty (928–1043)
* Buwayhid dynasty (934–1055)
* Ghaznavid Empire (963–1187)
* Ghori dynasty (1149–1212)
* Seljukid Empire (1037–1194)
* Khwarezmid dynasty (1077–1231)
* Ilkhanate (1256–1353)
* Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393)
* Chupanid dyansty (1337–1357)
* Jalayerid dynasty (1339–1432)
* Timurid Empire (1370–1506)
* Kara Koyunlu Turcomans (1407–1468)
* Ak Koyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508)
* Safavid Empire (1501–1722/1736)
* Hotaki Ghilzai dynasty (1722–1729)
* Afsharid dynasty (1736–1802)
* Zand dynasty (1750–1794)
* Qajar dynasty (1781–1925)
* Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979)
* Iranian Revolution (1979)
* Provisional Government (1979–1980)
* Islamic Republic of Iran (1980–Present)
edit
Ancient Mesopotamia
Euphrates – Tigris
Assyriology
Cities / Empires
Sumer: Uruk – Ur – Eridu
Kish – Lagash – Nippur
Akkadian Empire: Akkad
Babylon – Isin – Susa
Assyria: Assur – Nineveh
Dur-Sharrukin – Nimrud
Babylonia – Chaldea
Elam – Amorites
Hurrians – Mitanni
Kassites – Urartu
Chronology
Kings of Sumer
Kings of Assyria
Kings of Babylon
Language
Cuneiform script
Sumerian – Akkadian
Elamite – Hurrian
Mythology
Enûma Elish
Gilgamesh – Marduk
Elam (Persian: تمدن ایلام) is one of the oldest recorded civilizations. Elam was centered in the far west and southwest of modern day Iran (in the Ilam Province and the lowlands of Khuzestan). It lasted from around 2700 BC to 539 BC. It was preceded by what is known as the Proto-Elamite period, which began around 3200 BC when Susa (later capital of the Elamites) began to be influenced by the cultures of the Iranian plateau to the east.
Ancient Elam lay to the east of Sumer and Akkad (modern-day Iraq). In the Old Elamite period, it consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a crucial role in the Persian Empire, especially during the Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded it, when the Elamite language remained in official use. The Elamite period is considered a starting point for the history of Iran (although there were older civilizations in Iranian plateau like Mannaeans kingdom in Iranian Azarbaijan and Shahr-i Sokhta (Burned City) in Zabol and other indigenous civilizations such as Jiroft Kingdom who lived in Iranian plateau but weren't as established as Elamites). The Elamite language was not related to any Iranian languages, but may be part of a larger group known as Elamo-Dravidian.
Elam gives its name to one of the provinces of modern Iran (usually spelt Ilam).
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
o 2.1 Old Elamite Period
o 2.2 Middle Elamite Period
o 2.3 Neo-Elamite Period
+ 2.3.1 Neo-Elamite I (c. 1100–770)
+ 2.3.2 Neo-Elamite II (c. 770–646)
+ 2.3.3 Neo-Elamite III (646–539)
* 3 Elamite language
* 4 The Elamite legacy
o 4.1 Elamite influence on the Achaemenids
o 4.2 Post Achaemenid influence
* 5 Elamite studies
* 6 See also
* 7 External links
* 8 References
[edit] Etymology
The Elamites called their country Haltamti (in later Elamite, Atamti), which the neighboring Akkadians rendered as Elam. Elam means "highland". Additionally, the Haltamti are known as Elam in the Hebrew Old Testament, where they are called the offspring of Elam, eldest son of Shem (see Elam in the Bible).
The high country of Elam was increasingly identified by its low-lying later capital, Susa. Geographers after Ptolemy called it Susiana. The Elamite civilization was primarily centered in the province of what is modern-day Khuzestan, however it did extend into the later province of Fars in prehistoric times. In fact, the modern provincial name Khuzestān is derived from the Old Persian root Hujiyā, meaning "Elam".
[edit] History
Knowledge of Elamite history remains largely fragmentary, reconstruction being based on mainly Mesopotamian sources. The city of Susa was founded around 4000 BC, and during its early history, fluctuated between submission to Mesopotamian and Elamite power. The earliest levels (22-17 in the excavations conducted by Le Brun, 1978) exhibit pottery that has no equivalent in Mesopotamia, but for the succeeding period, the excavated material allows identification with the culture of Sumer of the Uruk period. Proto-Elamite influence from the Persian plateau in Susa becomes visible from about 3200 BC, and texts in the still undeciphered Proto-Elamite writing system continue to be present until about 2700 BC. The Proto-Elamite period ends with the establishment of the Awan dynasty. The earliest known historical figure connected with Elam is the king Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 2650 BC?), who subdued it, according to the Sumerian king list. However, real Elamite history can only be traced from records dating to beginning of the Akkadian Empire in around 2300 BC onwards.
Elamite civilization grew up east of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in the watershed of the river Karun. In modern terms, Elam included more than Khuzestan; it was a combination of the lowlands and the immediate highland areas to the north and east. Some Elamite sites, however, are found well outside this area, spread out on the Iranian plateau; examples of Elamite remains farther north and east in Iran are Sialk in Isfahan Province and Jiroft [1] in Kerman Province. Elamite strength was based on an ability to hold these various areas together under a coordinated government that permitted the maximum interchange of the natural resources unique to each region. Traditionally, this was done through a federated governmental structure.
Map showing the area of the Elamite Empire (in red) and the neighboring areas. The approximate Bronze Age extension of the Persian Gulf is shown.
Map showing the area of the Elamite Empire (in red) and the neighboring areas. The approximate Bronze Age extension of the Persian Gulf is shown.
The history of Elam is conventionally divided into three periods, spanning more than two millennia. The period before the first Elamite period is known as the proto-Elamite period:
* Proto-Elamite: c. 3200 BC – 2700 BC (Proto-Elamite script in Susa)
* Old Elamite period: c. 2700 BC – 1600 BC (earliest documents until the Eparti dynasty)
* Middle Elamite period: c. 1500 BC – 1100 BC (Anzanite dynasty until the Babylonian invasion of Susa)
* Neo-Elamite period: c. 1100 BC – 539 BC (characterized by Iranian and Syrian influence. 539 BC marks the beginning of the Achaemenid period)
[edit] Old Elamite Period
The Old Elamite period began around 2700 BC. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam by Enmebaragesi of Kish. Three dynasties ruled during this period. We know of twelve kings of each of the first two dynasties, those of Avan (c. 2400–2100 BC) and Simash (c. 2100–1970 BC), from a list from Susa dating to the Old Babylonian period. Two Elamite dynasties said to have exercised brief control over Sumer in very early times include Avan and Hamazi, and likewise, several of the stronger Sumerian rulers, such as Eannatum of Lagash and Lugal-anne-mundu of Adab, are recorded as temporarily dominating Elam.
The Avan dynasty was partly contemporary with that of Sargon of Akkad, who not only subjected Elam, but attempted to make Akkadian the official language there. However, with the collapse of Akkad under Sargon's great-grandson, Shar-kali-sharri, Elam declared independence and threw off the Akkadian language.
The ziggurat of Chogha Zanbil is the largest remnant of The Elamites through the ages.
Enlarge
The ziggurat of Chogha Zanbil is the largest remnant of The Elamites through the ages.
The last Avan king, Kutik-Inshushinnak was roughly a contemporary of Ur-Nammu. From this time, Mesopotamian sources concerning Elam become more frequent, since the Mesopotamians had developed an interest in resources (such as wood, stone and metal) from the Iranian plateau, and military expeditions to the area became more common. Kutik-Inshushinnak conquered Susa and Anshan, and seems to have achieved some sort of political unity. A few years later, Shulgi of Ur retook the city of Susa and the surrounding region. During the first part of the rule of the Simashki dynasty, Elam was under intermittent attack from Mesopotamians and Gutians, alternating with periods of peace and diplomatic approaches. Shu-Sin of Ur, for example, gave one of his daughters in marriage to a prince of Anshan. But the power of the Sumerians was waning; Ibbi-Sin in the 21st century did not manage to penetrate far into Elam, and in 2004 BC, the Elamites, allied with the people of Susa and led by king Kindattu, the sixth king of Simashk, managed to sack Ur and lead Ibbi-Sin into captivity -- thus ending the third dynasty of Ur. However, the kings of Isin, successor state to Ur, did manage to drive the Elamites out of Ur, rebuild the city, and to return the statue of Nanna that the Elamites had plundered.
Silver cup from Marvdasht, Fars, with linear-Elamite inscription on it. Late 3rd Millennium BC. National Museum of Iran.
Enlarge
Silver cup from Marvdasht, Fars, with linear-Elamite inscription on it. Late 3rd Millennium BC. National Museum of Iran.
The succeeding dynasty, the Elam (c. 1970–1770 BC), also called "of the sukkalmahs" because of the title borne by its members, was contemporary with the Old Babylonian period in Mesopotamia. This period is confusing and difficult to reconstruct. It was apparently founded by Eparti I. During this time, Susa was under Elamite control, but Mesopotamian states such as Larsa continually tried to retake the city. Sirukdukh, the third ruler of this dynasty, entered various military coalitions to contain the rising power of Babylon. Kudur-mabug, apparently king of another Elamite state to the north of Susa, managed to install his son, Warad-Sin, on the throne of Larsa, and Warad-Sin's brother, Rim-Sin, succeeded him and conquered much of Mesopotamia for Larsa before being overthrown by Hammurabi of Babylon.
The first and most notable Eparti dynasty ruler was Siwe-Palar-Khuppak, who for some time was the most powerful person in the area, respectfully addressed as "Father" by Mesopotamian kings such as Zimri-Lim of Mari, and even Hammurabi. But Elamite influence in Mesopotamia did not last, and after a few years, Hammurabi established Babylonian dominance in Mesopotamia. Little is known about the latter part of this dynasty, since sources become again more sparse with the Kassite rule of Babylon.
[edit] Middle Elamite Period
A "two horned" figure wrestling with serpents. The Elamite artifact was discovered by Iran's border police from Historical Heritage traffickers, en route to Turkey, and was confiscated. Style is determined to be from Jiroft.
Enlarge
A "two horned" figure wrestling with serpents. The Elamite artifact was discovered by Iran's border police from Historical Heritage traffickers, en route to Turkey, and was confiscated. Style is determined to be from Jiroft.
The Middle Elamite period began with the rise of the Anshanite dynasties around 1500 BC. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation" of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of Anshan and Susa". While the first of these dynasties, the Kidinuids continued to use the Akkadian language frequently in their inscriptions, the succeeding Igihalkids and Shutrukids used Elamite with increasing regularity. Likewise, Elamite language and culture grew in importance in Susiana.
The Kidinuids (c. 1500–1400) are a group of five rulers of uncertain affiliation. They are identified by their use of the older title, "king of Susa and of Anshan", and by calling themselves "servant of Kirwashir", an Elamite deity, thereby introducing the pantheon of the highlands to Susiana.
Of the Igehalkids (c. 1400–1210), ten rulers are known, and there were possibly more. Some of them married Kassite princesses. The Kassite king Kurigalzu II temporarily occupied Elam c. 1320 BC, and later (c. 1230) another Kassite king, Kashtiliash IV, fought Elam unsuccessfully. Kiddin-Khutran I of Elam repulsed the Kassites by defeating Enlil-nadin-shumi in 1224 and Adad-shuma-iddina around 1222-17. Under the Igehalkids, Akkadian inscriptions were rare, and Elamite highland gods became firmly established in Susa.
Under the Shutrukids (c. 1210–1100), the Elamite empire reached the height of its power. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte and his three sons, Kutir-Nakhkhunte II, Shilhak-In-Shushinak, and Khutelutush-In-Shushinak were capable of frequent military campaigns into Kassite Mesopotamia, and at the same time were exhibiting vigorous construction activity -- building and restoring luxurious temples in Susa and across their Empire. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte raided Akkad, Babylon, and Eshnunna, carrying home to Susa trophies like the statues of Marduk and Manishtushu, the code of Hammurabi and the stela of Naram-Sin.
In 1158 BC, Shutruk-Nakhkhunte defeated the Kassites permanently, killing the Kassite king of Babylon, Zababa-shuma-iddina, and replacing him with his eldest son, Kutir-Nakhkhunte, who held it no more than three years.
Kutir-Nakhkhunte's son Khutelutush-In-Shushinak was probably of an incestuous relation of Kutir-Nakhkhunte's with his own daughter, Nakhkhunte-utu. He ended up temporarily yielding Susa to the forces of Nebuchadnezzar I of Babylon, who returned the statue of Marduk. He fled to Anshan, but later returned to Susa, and his brother Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar may have succeeded him as last king of the Shutrukid dynasty. Following Khutelutush-In-Shushinak, the power of the Elamite empire began to wane seriously, for with this ruler, Elam disappears into obscurity for more than three centuries.
[edit] Neo-Elamite Period
[edit] Neo-Elamite I (c. 1100–770)
Very little is known of this period. Anshan was still at least partially Elamite. There appear to have been alliances of Elam and Babylonia against the Assyrians; the Babylonian king Mar-biti-apla-ushur (984—79) was of Elamite origin, and Elamites are recorded to have fought with the Babylonian king Marduk-balassu-iqbi against the Assyrian forces under Shamshi-Adad V (823–11).
[edit] Neo-Elamite II (c. 770–646)
Ashurbanipal's campaign against Susa is triumphantly recorded in this relief showing the sack of Susa in 647 BC. Here, flames rise from the city as Assyrian soldiers topple it with pickaxes and crowbars and carry off the spoils.
Enlarge
Ashurbanipal's campaign against Susa is triumphantly recorded in this relief showing the sack of Susa in 647 BC. Here, flames rise from the city as Assyrian soldiers topple it with pickaxes and crowbars and carry off the spoils.
The later Neo-Elamite period is characterized by a significant migration of Iranians to the Iranian plateau. Assyrian sources beginning around 800 BC distinguish the "powerful Medes", ie the actual Medes, and the "distant Medes" that would later enter history under their proper names, (Parthians, Sagartians, Margians, Bactrians, Sogdians etc). This pressure of immigrating Iranians pushed the Elamites of Anshan towards Susa, so that in the course of this period, Susiana became known as Elam, while Anshan and the Iranian plateau, the original home of the Elamites, were renamed Persia proper. The Elamite kings, apart from the last three, nevertheless continued to claim the title of "king of Anshan and Susa".
More details of an alliance of Babylonia and Elam against Assyria are tangible from the late 8th century BC. Khumbanigash (743–17) supported Merodach-baladan against Sargon II, apparently with limited success; while his successor, Shutruk-Nakhkhunte II (716–699), was routed by Sargon's troops during an expedition in 710, and another Elamite defeat by Sargon's troops is recorded for 708. The Assyrian victory was completed by Sargon's son Sennacherib, who dethroned Merodach-baladan and installed his own son Assur-nadin-shumi on the throne of Babylon.
Shuttir-Nakhkhunte was murdered by his brother Khallushu, who managed to capture Assur-nadin-shumi, and was in turn assassinated by Kutir-Nakhkhunte -- who succeeded him, but soon abdicated in favor of Khumma-Menanu III (692–89). Khumma-Menanu recruited a new army to help the Babylonians against the Assyrians at the battle of Halule in 691 BC. The battle was indecisive, or at least both sides claimed the victory in their annals, but Babylon fell to the Assyrians only two years later. The reigns of Khumma-Khaldash I (688–81) and Khumma-Khaldash II (680–75) saw a deterioration of Elamite-Babylonian relations, and both of them raided Sippar. Urtaku (674–64) for some time maintained good relations with Assurbanipal (668–27), who sent wheat to Susiana during a famine. But these friendly relations were only temporary, and Urtaku died during another Elamite attack on Mesopotamia.
His successor Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak (664–53) was counter-attacked by Assurbanipal, and was killed following the battle of the Ulaï in 653 BC; and Elam was occupied by the Assyrians. During a brief respite provided by the civil war between Assurbanipal and his brother Shamash-shum-ukin, the Elamites too indulged in fighting among themselves, so weakening the Elamite kingdom that in 646 BC Assurbanipal devastated Susiana with ease, and sacked Susa. A succession of brief reigns continued in Elam from 651 to 640, each of them ended either due to usurpation, or because of capture of their king by the Assyrians. In this manner, the last Elamite king, Khumma-Khaldash III, was captured in 640 BC by Ashurbanipal, who devastated the country.
In a tablet unearthed in 1854 by Henry Austin Layard, Ashurbanipal boasts of the destruction he had wrought:
"Susa, the great holy city, abode of their Gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed...I destroyed the ziggurat of Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced the temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated, I exposed to the sun, and I carried away their bones toward the land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and on their lands I sowed salt." (Persians: Masters of Empire, p7-8, ISBN 0-8094-9104-4)
[edit] Neo-Elamite III (646–539)
The devastation was however less complete than Assurbanipal boasted, and Elamite rule was resurrected soon after with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of III (not to be confused with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of Indada, a petty king in the first half of the 6th century). Elamite royalty in the final century preceding the Achaemenids was fragmented among different small kingdoms. The three kings at the close of the 7th century (Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, Khallutush-In-Shushinak and Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak ) still called themselves "king of Anzan and of Susa" or "enlarger of the kingdom of Anzan and of Susa", at a time when the Achaemenids were already ruling Anshan. Their successors Khumma-Menanu and Shilhak-In-Shushinak II bore the simple title "king," and the final king Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak boasted no title altogether. In 539 BC, Achaemenid rule begins in Susa.
[edit] Elamite language
Main article: Elamite language
Elamite is unrelated to the neighboring Semitic, Sumerian and Indo-European languages. It was written in a cuneiform adapted from Akkadian script, although the very earliest documents were written in the quite different "Linear Elamite" script. This seems to have developed from an even earlier writing known as "proto-Elamite", but scholars are not unanimous on whether or not this script was used to write Elamite or another language, and it has not yet been deciphered.
Some linguists believe Elamite may be related to the living Dravidian languages (of southern India, and Brahui in Pakistan). The hypothesized family of Elamo-Dravidian languages may further prove to be connected with the Indus Valley Civilization somewhat to the East, possibly corresponding to Meluhha in Sumerian records. However, such links are at best conjectural, and Harappan pictographs have also yet to be deciphered.
Several stages of the language are attested; the earliest date back to the third millennium BC, the latest to the Achaemenid Empire.
The Elamite language may have survived as late as the early Islamic period. Ibn al-Nadim among other Arab medieval historians, for instance, wrote that "The Iranian languages are Fahlavi (Pahlavi), Dari, Khuzi, Persian and Suryani", and Ibn Moqaffa noted that Khuzi was the unofficial language of the royalty of Persia, "Khuz" being the corrupted name for Elam. See Origin of the name Khuzestan for details.
[edit] The Elamite legacy
An Elamite man as depicted in a bas-relief from Persepolis.
Enlarge
An Elamite man as depicted in a bas-relief from Persepolis.
The Assyrians thought that they had utterly destroyed the Elamites, but new polities emerged in the area after Assyrian power faded. However, they never again exercised the power of the earlier Elamite empires; they controlled the watershed of the Karun and little beyond. Among the nations that benefited from the decline of the Assyrians were the Persians, whose presence around Lake Urmia to the north of Elam is attested from the 9th century BC in Assyrian texts. Some time after that region fell to Madius the Scythian (653 BC), Teispes son of Achaemenes conquered Elamite Anshan in the mid 7th century BC, forming a nucleus that would expand into the Persian Empire.
[edit] Elamite influence on the Achaemenids
The rise of the Achaemenids in the 6th century BC brought an end to the existence of Elam as an independent political power "but not as a cultural entity" (Encyclopedia Iranica, Columbia University). Indigenous Elamite traditions, such as the use of the title "king of Anshan" by Cyrus the Great; the "Elamite robe" worn by Cambyses I of Anshan and seen on the famous winged genii at Pasargadae; some glyptic styles; the use of Elamite as the first of three official languages of the empire used in thousands of administrative texts found at Darius' city of Persepolis; the continued worship of Elamite deities; and the persistence of Elamite religious personnel and cults supported by the crown, formed an essential part of the newly emerging Achaemenid culture in Persian Iran. The Elamites thus became the conduit by which achievements of the Mesopotamian civilizations were introduced to the tribes of the Iranian plateau.
According to the editors of Persians, Masters of Empire: "The Elamites, fierce rivals of the Babylonians, were precursors of the royal Persians" (ISBN 0-8094-9104-4). This view is widely accepted today, as experts unanimously recognize the Elamites to have "absorbed Iranian influences in both structure and vocabulary" by 500 BC. (Encyclopedia Iranica, Columbia University)
The Elamite civilization's originality, coupled with studies carried out at Elamite sites well spread out over the Iranian plateau, have led modern historians to conclude that "The Elamites are the founders of the first Iranian empire in the geographic sense". (Elton Daniel, The History of Iran, p. 26)
Most experts go even further and establish a clear chain of cultural continuity between the Elamites and later dynasties of Iran. Elamologist DT Potts verifies this in writing, "There is much evidence, both archaeological and literary/epigraphic, to suggest that the rise of the Persian empire witnessed the fusion of Elamite and Persian elements already present in highland Fars". (The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State, Cambridge World Archaeology, Chap 9 Introduction.).
Thus, not only was "Elam absorbed into the new empire" (Encyclopedia Iranica, Columbia University), becoming part of the millennia old imperial heritage of Iran, but the Elamite civilization is now recognized to be "the earliest civilization of Persia", in the words of Sir Percy Sykes. (A History of Persia, p38, ISBN 0-415-32678-8).
[edit] Post Achaemenid influence
Traditional histories have ended Elamite history with its submergence in the Achaemenids, but Greek and Latin references to "Elymeans" attest to cultural survival, according to Daniel Potts. The traditional name "Elam" appears as late as 1300 in the records of the Nestorian Christians.
[edit] Elamite studies
In a 2001 talk, Basello Gian Pietro (Istituto Universitario Orientale, Naples) stated:
While even today the languages play a basic role in our schematisation and teaching of the past, this stepchild shows us how frail the boundaries of our academic subjects are. While ancient Elamites fought against Assyrians and rebelled against Persians, Elamite studies are strictly bound to Assyriology and Iranian studies. As ancient Elam stood and represented a meeting place between Mesopotamian lowland and Iranian highland, so Elamite studies need to grab and grasp data both from Assyriology and Iranian studies and through many fields of work.
Unfortunately, missing an independent academic subject, we have little specific teaching of Elamite studies. As we employ a foreign designation in referring to ancient Anšan and Susiana, Elamite scholars are often Assyriologists, Iranists or Linguists in their academic background, i.e. they have approached Elam later and from an external point of view. [2]
As opposed to the typical view that Elam is of interest only for its contributions to Iranian or Assyrian culture, or for its unique language, some scholars feel that Elam should be studied in its own right, and not annexed to another cultural tradition.
Important Link -
http://www.salagram.net/aryaninvasion-page.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurrians
Ancient Hindu temples in Turkey -
Mission Statement
Mission Statement
Department History
Department History
Development
Development
Why MESAS
Why MESAS
MESAS Awards
MESAS Awards
Contact Us
Contact Us
MESAS Faculty
MESAS Faculty
MESAS Staff
MESAS Staff
Associated Faculty
Associated Faculty
Arabic
Arabic
Hebrew
Hebrew
Hindi
Hindi
Persian
Persian
Sanskrit
Sanskrit
Spring 2007
Spring 2007
Fall 2006
Fall 2006
Spring 2006
Spring 2006
Fall 2005
Fall 2005
Spring 2005
Spring 2005
Fall 2004
Fall 2004
Spring 2004
Spring 2004
Fall 2003
Fall 2003
Spring 2003
Spring 2003
Fall 2002
Fall 2002
Spring 2002
Spring 2002
Fall 2001
Fall 2001
The Major
The Major
Languages (Minors)
Languages (Minors)
Mediterranean Archaeology (Minor)
Mediterranean Archaeology (Minor)
Honors
Honors
Course Atlas
Course Atlas
Course Catalog
Course Catalog
Study Abroad
Study Abroad
Graduate Study
Graduate Study
Arabic Media Center
Arabic Media Center
MESAS EVENTS & ACTIVITIES
MESAS EVENTS & ACTIVITIES
Asian Studies Events
Asian Studies Events
Jewish Studies Events
Jewish Studies Events
Emory College Events
Emory College Events
Cosponsorship of Events
Cosponsorship of Events
Arabic Media Center
Arabic Media Center
Institutional Memberships
Institutional Memberships
Policies and Procedures
Policies and Procedures
Resources
Resources
Links
Links
http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/mesopnew/mitanni.htm
The Mitanni Evidence
From Paul Thieme, 'The "Aryan" Gods of the Mitanni Treaties', JAOS, Vol. 80, 1960, pp. 301-317.
"...Kikkuli's treatise in Hittite on horse training (numerals: aika-one, tera -three,panza -- five, satta -- seven, na(ua) -- nine; appellatives: uartana -- circuitm course (in which horses move when being trained), as'ua-- horse, and, finally, a series of names of Aryan divinities on a Mitanni-Hatti and a Hatti-Mitanni treaty (14th century BC)... a key question is whether these data should be interpreted as traces of specifically Indo-Aryan speech and religion, or whether they should rather be identified as Proto-Aryan... an answer to it would have considerable historical implications. The historian will devise a theory to explain how 'Indians', or 'Proto-Indians', or 'Para-Indians', or 'Proto-Aryans' could come into Western Asia and exercise influence inferable from these linguistic traces. The linguist is entitled to be more modest. At the first step, he will not attempt to offer an explication in terms of a hypothesis, but to reach a factual decision on the linguistic character of the terms that confront him... It is easy to see that in each case where there exists a clearly recognizable difference between Indo-Aryan and Iranian, the terms and names of the Akkadian and Hittite documentation (as far as they are safely identifiable) side with Indo-Aryan-- s in intervocalic or prevocalic initial positions, which in Iranian appears as h, is preserve: nas'aattiia- (Mitanni treaty); Sanskrit Na_satya, but Iranian *Na_ha0ya (Av. Na_nhai0ya); satta- (Kikkuli): Sanskrit sapta, but Iranian hafta, hapta; the numeral 'one' is aika- (Kikkuli): Sanskrit eka, but Iranian aiva. However, it is not possible to deny that the forms Na_satya, sapta and a numeral aika might be Proto-Aryan. As far as s is concerned, Indo-Aryan preserves the old situation while Iranian has innovated; as to aika, the possibility must be admitted that both *aika and *aiva were Proto-Aryan and that the exclusive adoption of *aika in Indo-Aryan and of aiva in Iranian is the result of a later development. The fact that Proto-Aryan *ai and *au are replaced in Indo-Aryan by e and o, while in old Iranian they are preserved as ai and au and that ai and au regularly appear on the Anatolian documents (e.g., Kikkuli's aika), is unfortunately inconclusive... In his essay, 'The Aryan Gods of the Mitani People (Kristinania Etnografiske Museums Skrifter Bind 3 Hefte 1; Kristiania, 1921), Sten Konow vigorously maintained that a clear-cut difference between Proto-Aryan and Indo-Aryan divine nomenclature necessarily has to be asumed, and that by taking into account this difference it becomes possible to settle the Indo-Aryan (Vedic) nature of the gods named as witnesses on the treaties. Sten Konow's arguments have been unduly neglected by several contemporary scholars. It is, for instance, hard to accept T. Burrow's statement (Sanskrit Language, p. 30): "It is only the antiquity and conservativism of the Indian tradition, as opposed to the Iranian, that has led scholars to regard these Aryas (in the Mitanni realm) as specifically Indo-Aryan." One of Konow's chief points was that the Vedic Indra must be distinguished from a presumable Proto-Aryan *Indra and that the particular role he plays in the RV alone can be held responsible for his appearing in the Mitanni treaty in the company of Mitra and Varun.a. Nor do I find it possible to concur with Mayrhofer's charecterization of the relation of Vedic and Iranian to Proto-Aryan religion (Die Sprache, Vol. V, p. 90: "Bei den Gutternamen (war)... was uns nur im Veda in voller Blute erscheint, doch mit Sicherbeit (sic!) bereits im Gemeinarischen, aber ebenso wohl im vorzarathustrischen Iranischen vorhanden..."), whiich while being in full harmony with views held and expressed by H. Oldenbern in his time (cf., e.g., JRAS 1909, pp. 1096-1098), cannot be derived wth any cogency from our actual data, and rather rests on highly questionable simplifications....To be correct, Burrow's verdict might well have to be inverted: It is only the unquestioning acceptance of the conservativism of the Indian tradition, as opposed to the Iranian, that has led some scholars to regard the Aryan gods of the Mitanni treaty to be Proto-Aryan....
"The lists of the Aryan gods on the Hatti-Mitanni (KBo I 1 and duplicates) and the Mitanni-Hatti (KBo I 3) treaties read:...
mi-it-ra-as'-si-il...
in-dar
na-s'a-a (t-ti-ia-a)n-na...
mi-it-ra-as'-s'i-il
a-ru-na-as'-s'i-il
in-da-ra
na-s'a-at-ti-ia-an-na
It cannot be doubted, and indeed never was, that the onomastic elements of these texts, which are given in italics in my transcription, have exact equivalents in Vedic religious poetry. Here the stem forms of the names quoted would read: Mitra-, Varun.a-, Indra-, Na_satya-... If further asked to name a Rigvedic verse in which these names appear side by side and in this orde,r he would have to quote RV 10.125.1bc:
aham mitra_-varun.a_ ubha_ bibharmi
aham indra_gni_ aham as'vina_ ubha_
"I (Speech) carry (support, nourish, or bear-- in my womb) both Mitra and Varun.a, I (carry) Indra- Agni, I (carry) both the two As'vins"...It is the merit of G. Dumezil (Les dieux des Indo-Europeens, Paris 1952, p. 9ff.) to have pointed out the analogy of the Mitanni series and that of RV 10.125.1bc...There is no justification for obliterating this potential clue by choosing to quote the gods of the Mitanni treaties in an arbitrarily changed order (Burrow, opcit, p. 28)... The name Varun.a is spelt in two different ways... u-ru-ua-na; a-ru-na... it represents an actual variant of the name, introduced by a Hittite who connected with Hittite aruna- 'sea'. Varun.a is, in fact, closely associated with the waters, especially the 'sea' (samudra), in the RV... the compound mitra_varun.a_ was divided incorrectly, not into the two duals mitra_ and varun.a_, but into the duals *mitra_u and *arun.a_...
"...the obvious presumption is that the Aryan gods in the list are gods of the royal family-- and perhaps of part of the nobility-- while the Mitanni gods are those of the 'Hurri people
"...Do Mitra, Varun.a, Indra and the two Na_satyas protect treaties in the RV? and: Is it likely or provable that they did so in Proto-Aryan times? To the first question a strictly factual answer can be given: all the named gods indeed are said to protect treaties in the RV, even the two Na_satyas, though these only ocasionally. The second one cannot be answered with the same confidence, since we have no primary sources of Proto-Aryan religion and must rely upon the resources of techniques of reconstruction... A reconstruction (of Proto-Aryan religion) can be attempted only by a careful confrontation of Vedic and Avestan terminology. Such confrontation yields the result that but one name in the Mitanni list can be postulated safely as that of a Proto-Aryan god whose function it was to protect treaties-- *Mitra m. 'Contract, Treaty'. All the other items of the list are doubtful with respect either to the form of the name or to the functions of the god in Proto-Aryan times."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittani#Indo-Aryan_superstrate
Mitanni
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Mittani)
Jump to: navigation, search
Ancient Mesopotamia
Euphrates – Tigris
Assyriology
Cities / Empires
Sumer: Uruk – Ur – Eridu
Kish – Lagash – Nippur
Akkadian Empire: Akkad
Babylon – Isin – Susa
Assyria: Assur – Nineveh
Dur-Sharrukin – Nimrud
Babylonia – Chaldea
Elam – Amorites
Hurrians – Mitanni
Kassites – Urartu
Chronology
Kings of Sumer
Kings of Assyria
Kings of Babylon
Language
Cuneiform script
Sumerian – Akkadian
Elamite – Hurrian
Mythology
Enûma Elish
Gilgamesh – Marduk
Mitanni or Mittani (in Assyrian sources Hanilgalbat, Khanigalbat) was a Hurrian kingdom in northern Syria from ca. 1500 BC. The name was later used as a geographical term for the area between the Khabur and Euphrates rivers in Neo-Assyrian times. According to some scholars, the name Mitanni is survived by the Kurdish tribe, "Motikan", who inhabit the same geographical areas believed to be the home of the Hurrians and Mitanni kingdom. Mitanni is thought to have been a feudal state led by a warrior nobility of partly Indo-Aryan descent, reaching Syria at some point during the 18th or 17th century BC in the course of the Indo-Aryan migration that separated Middle Bronze Age Proto-Indo-Iranians into the Indo-Aryan and Iranian branches.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Geography
* 2 Hurri, Mitanni/Maitani, and Hanigalbat
* 3 People
* 4 History
o 4.1 Summary
o 4.2 Early kingdom
o 4.3 Barattarna / Parsha(ta)tar
o 4.4 Shaushtatar
o 4.5 Artatama I and Shuttarna II
o 4.6 Artashumara and Tushratta
o 4.7 Shattiwaza
o 4.8 Shattuara I
o 4.9 Wasashatta
o 4.10 Shattuara II
o 4.11 Hanigalbat as an Assyrian Province
o 4.12 Neo-Assyrian times
* 5 Indo-Aryan superstrate
* 6 Mitanni rulers
* 7 See also
* 8 Sources
* 9 External links
[edit] Geography
Mitanni in northern Mesopotamia extended from Nuzi (modern Kirkuk) and the river Tigris in the east, to Aleppo and middle Syria (Nuhashshe) in the west. Its centre was in the Khabur river valley, with two capitals: Taite and Washshukanni, called Taidu and Ushshukana respectively in Assyrian sources. (Vasu-khani would mean "mine of wealth" in Sanskrit, but cf. Luwian vasu- "good", Bashkani in modern Kurdish: good water source) The whole area allows agriculture without artificial irrigation; cattle, sheep and goats were raised. It is very similar to Assyria in climate, and was settled by both indigenous Hurrian and Amoritic-speaking (Amurru) populations.
[edit] Hurri, Mitanni/Maitani, and Hanigalbat
"Mitanni" seems to have been the native term; this entity may also have been the Biblical Harran, though this is contested. We may assume a Hurrian population with an Indo-Aryan aristocracy.
Hittite annals mention a people called "Hurri", located in north-eastern Syria. A Hittite fragment, probably from the time of Mursili I, mentions a "King of the Hurrians". Probably, the original form of the name was "Hurla". The Assyro-Akkadian version of the text renders "Hurri" as Hanigalbat. The Assyrians used the term "Mitanni" as a synonym only after the end of the political entity.
Egyptian sources apply the term 'nhr', Naharina (from the Akkadian word for 'river', cf. Aram-Naharaim). The name Mitanni or Maitani is first found in the "memoirs" of the Syrian wars (ca. 1480) of the officier Amememhet, who lived at the time of Amenhotep I (1525 - 1504 BC) and maybe his two successors.
[edit] People
To complicate matters, while the names of the Mitanni aristocracy reveal their Indo-Aryan origin, the agglutinative Hurrian language is not believed to belong to the Indo-European language family that has been reconstructed from rather scarce sources. A Hurrian passage in the Amarna letters - usually composed in Babylonian, the lingua franca of the day - indicates that the royal family of Mitanni was by then speaking Hurrian as well.
Bearers of names in the Hurrian language are attested in wide areas of Syria and the northern Levant that are clearly outside the area of the political entity known to Assyria as Hanilgalbat. There is no indication that these persons owed allegiance to the political entity of Mitanni; although the German term Auslandshurriter ("Hurrian expatriates") has been used by some authors. In the 14th century BC numerous city-states in northern Syria and Canaan were ruled by persons with Hurrian names. If this can be taken to mean that the population of these states was Hurrian as well, then it is possible that these entities were a part of a larger polity with a shared Hurrian identity. This is often assumed, but without a critical examination of the sources. Differences in dialect and regionally different pantheons (Hepat/Shawushka, Sharruma/Tilla etc.) point to the existence of several groups of Hurrian speakers. Many researchers conclude that Hurrians are of one of the several Kurdish ancestor tribes stretched across the region of what is commonly today referred to as Kurdistan [1]. The Hurrian language is concluded by some researchers to be proto-Kurdish.
[edit] History
No native sources for the history of Mitanni (i.e. Hanilgalbat) have been found so far. The account is mainly based on Assyrian, Hittite and Egyptian sources, as well as inscriptions from nearby places in Syria. Often it is not even possible to establish synchronicity between the rulers of different countries and cities, let alone give uncontested absolute dates. The definition and history of Mitanni is further beset by a lack of differentiation between linguistic, ethnic and political groups.
[edit] Summary
It is believed that the warring Hurrian tribes and city states became united under one dynasty after the collapse of Babylon due to the Hittite sack by Mursili I and the Kassite invasion. The Hittite conquest of Aleppo (Yamhad), the weak middle Assyrian kings, and the internal strifes of the Hittites had created a power vacuum in upper Mesopotamia. This led to the formation of the kingdom of Mitanni.
King Barattarna of Mitanni expanded the kingdom west to Halab (Aleppo) and made Idrimi of Alalakh his vassal. The state of Kizzuwatna in the west also shifted its allegiance to Mitanni and Arrapha and Assyria in the east had become Mitannian vassal states by the mid-fifteenth century BC. The nation grew stronger during the reign of Shaushtatar but the Hurrians were keen to keep the Hittites inside the Anatolian highland. Kizzuwatna in the west and Ishuwa in the north were important allies against the hostile Hittites.
After a few clashes with the Pharaohs over the control of Syria Mitanni sought peace with Egypt and an alliance was formed. During the reign of Shuttarna in the early fourteenth century BC the relationship was very amicable, and he sent his daughter Kilu-Hepa to Egypt for a marriage with Pharaoh Amenhotep III. Mitanni was now at its peak of power.
At the death of Shuttarna Mitanni was ravaged by fights among different claimants of the throne. Eventually Tushratta, a son of Shuttarna, ascended the throne. Mitanni had however weakened considerably and the Hittites moved closer to its borders. At the same time the diplomatic relationship with Egypt went cold, and the Assyrians threw off the Mitannian yoke. The Hittite king Suppiluliuma I invaded the Mitannian vassal states in northern Syria and replaced them with loyal subjects.
In the capital Washukanni a new power struggle broke out. The Hittites and the Assyrians supported different pretenders to the throne. Finally a Hittite army conquered the capital Washukkanni and installed Shattiwaza, the son of Tushratta, as their vassal king of Mitanni in the late fourteenth century BC. The kingdom had by now been reduced to the Khabur river valley. The Assyrians had however not given up their claim on Mitanni. In the thirteenth century BC Assyria defeated and annexed the kingdom of Mitanni, or Hanigalbat as it was known by them.
[edit] Early kingdom
As early as Akkadian times, Hurrians are known to have lived east of the river Tigris on the northern rim of Mesopotamia, and in the Khabur valley. Hurrians are mentioned in the private Nuzi texts, in Ugarit, and the Hittite archives in Hattushsha (Bogazköy). Cuneiform texts from Mari mention rulers of city-states in upper Mesopotamia with both Amurru (Amorite) and Hurrian names. Rulers with Hurrian names are also attested for Urshum and Hashshum, and tablets from Alalakh (layer VII, from the later part of the old-Babylonian period) mention people with Hurrian names at the mouth of the Orontes. There is no evidence for any invasion from the North-east. Generally, these onomastic sources have been taken as evidence for a Hurrian expansion to the South and the West.
A Hittite fragment, probably from the time of Mursili I, mentions a "King of the Hurrians" (LUGAL ERÍN.MEŠ Hurri). This terminology was last used for King Tushratta of Mitanni, in a letter in the Amarna archives. The normal title of the king was 'King of the Hurri-men' (without the determinative KUR indicating a country).
It is believed that the warring Hurrian tribes and city states became united under one dynasty after the collapse of Babylon due to the Hittite sack by Mursili I and the Kassite invasion. The Hittite conquest of Aleppo (Yamkhad), the weak middle Assyrian kings, and the internal strifes of the Hittites had created a power vacuum in upper Mesopotamia. This led to the formation of the kingdom of Mitanni. The legendary founder of the Mitannian dynasty was a king called Kirta, who was followed by a king Shuttarna. Nothing is known about these early kings.
[edit] Barattarna / Parsha(ta)tar
King Barattarna is known from a cuneiform tablet in Nuzi and an inscription by Idrimi of Alalakh.[2] Egyptian sources do not mention his name; that he was the king of Naharin whom Thutmose III fought against in the fifteenth century BC can only be deduced from assumptions. Whether Parsha(ta)tar, known from another Nuzi inscription, is the same as Barattarna, or a different king, is debated.
Under the rule of Thutmose III, Egyptian troops crossed the Euphrates and entered the core lands of Mitanni. At Megiddo, he fought an alliance of 330 Syrian princes and tribal leaders under the ruler of Kadesh. See Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC). Mitanni had sent troops as well. Whether this was done because of existing treaties, or only in reaction to a common threat, remains open to debate. The Egyptian victory opened the way north.
Thutmose III again waged war in Syria in the 33rd year of his rule. The Egyptian army crossed the Euphrates at Carchemish and reached a town called Iryn (maybe present day Erin, 20 km northwest of Aleppo.) They sailed down the Euphrates to Emar (Meskene) and then returned home via Syria. A hunt for elephants at Lake Nija was important enough to be included in the annals. This was impressive PR, but did not lead to any permanent rule. Only the area at the middle Orontes and Phoenicia became part of Egyptian territory.
Victories over Mitanni are recorded from the Egyptian campaigns in Nuhashshe (middle part of Syria). Again, this did not lead to permanent territorial gains. Barattarna or his son Shaushtatar controlled the North Syrian interior up to Nuhashshe, and the coastal territories from Kizzuwatna to Alalakh in the kingdom of Muksih at the mouth of the Orontes. Idrimi of Alalakh, returning from Egyptian exile, could only ascend his throne with Barattarna's consent. While he got to rule Mukish and Ama'u, Aleppo remained with Mitanni.
[edit] Shaushtatar
Shaushtatar, king of Mitanni, sacked Assur some time in the 15th century, and took the silver and golden doors of the royal palace to Washshukanni. This is known from a later Hittite document, the Suppililiuma-Shattiwaza treaty. After the sack of Assur, Assyria may have paid tribute to Mitanni up to the time of Ashur-uballit I (1365-1330 BC). There is no trace of that in the Assyrian king lists; therefore it is probable that Assur was ruled by a native Assyrian dynasty owing allegiance to the house of Shaushtatar. While a vassal of Mitanni, the temple of Sin and Shamash was built in Assur.
Aleppo, Nuzi, and Arrapha seem to have been incorporated into Mitanni under Shaushtatar as well. The palace of the crown prince, the governor of Arrapha has been excavated. A letter from Shaushtatar was discovered in the house of Shilwe-Teshup. His seal shows heroes and winged geniuses fighting lions and other animals, as well as a winged sun. This style, with a multitude of figures distributed over the whole of the available space, is taken as typically Hurrian. A second seal, belonging to Shuttarna I, but used by Shaushtatar, found in Alalakh, shows a more traditional Akkadian style.
The military superiority of Mitanni was probably based on the use of two-wheeled war-chariots, driven by the 'Marjannu' people. A text on the training of war-horses, written by a certain "Kikkuli the Mitannian" has been found in the archives recovered at Hattusa. More speculative is the attribution of the introduction of the chariot in Mesopotamia to early Mitanni.
Under the Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep II, Mitanni seems to have regained influence in the middle Orontes valley that had been conquered by Thutmose III. Amenhotep fought in Syria in 1425, presumably against Mitanni as well, but did not reach the Euphrates.
[edit] Artatama I and Shuttarna II
Later on, Egypt and Mitanni became allies, and King Shuttarna II himself was received at the Egyptian court. Amicable letters, sumptuous gifts, and letters asking for sumptuous gifts were exchanged. Mitanni was especially interested in Egyptian gold. This culminated in a number of royal marriages: the daughter of King Artatama was married to Thutmose IV. Kilu-Hepa, or Gilukhipa, the daughter of Shuttarna II, was married to Pharaoh Amenhotep III, who ruled in the early fourteenth century BC. In a later royal marriage Tadu-Hepa, or Tadukhipa, the daughter of Tushratta, was sent to Egypt.
When Amenhotep III fell ill, the king of Mitanni sent him a statue of the goddess Shaushka (Ishtar) of Niniveh that was reputed to cure diseases. A more or less permanent border between Egypt and Mitanni seems to have existed near Qatna on the Orontes River; Ugarit was part of Egyptian territory.
The reason Mitanni sought peace with Egypt may have been trouble with the Hittites. A Hittite ruler called Tudhaliya conducted campaigns against Kizzuwatna, Arzawa, Ishuwa, Aleppo, and maybe against Mitanni itself. Kizzuwatna may have fallen to the Hittites at that time.
[edit] Artashumara and Tushratta
Artashumara followed his father Shuttarna II on the throne, but was murdered by a certain UD-hi, or Uthi. It is uncertain what intrigues that followed, but UD-hi then placed Tushratta, another son of Shuttarna, on the throne. Probably, he was quite young at the time and was intended to serve as a figurehead only. However he managed to dispose of the murderer, possibly with the help of his Egyptian father-in-law, but this is sheer speculation.
The Egyptians may have suspected the mighty days of Mitanni were about to end. In order to protect their Syrian border zone the new Pharaoh Akhenaten instead received envoys from the Hittites and Assyria; the former Mitannian vassal state. From the Amarna letters we know how Tushratta's desperate claim for a gold statue from Akhenaten developed into a major diplomatic crisis.
The unrest weakened the Mitannian control of their vassal states, and Aziru of Amurru seized the opportunity and made a secret deal with the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I. Kizzuwatna, which had seceded from the Hittites, was reconquered by Suppiluliuma. In what has been called his first Syrian campaign, Suppiluliuma then invaded the western Euphrates valley, and conquered the Amurru and Nuhashshe in Mitanni.
According to the later Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza treaty, Suppiluliuma had made a treaty with Artatama, a rival of Tushratta. Nothing is known of this Artatama's previous life or connection, if any, to the royal family. He is called "king of the Hurri", while Tushratta went by the title "King of Mitanni". This must have disagreed with Tushratta. Suppiluliuma began to plunder the lands on the west bank of the Euphrates, and annexed Mount Lebanon. Tushratta threatened to raid beyond the Euphrates if even a single lamb or kid was stolen.
Suppiluliuma then recounts how the land of Ishuwa on the upper Euphrates had seceded in the time of his grandfather. Attempts to conquer it had failed. In the time of his father, other cities had rebelled. Suppiluliuma claims to have defeated them, but the survivors had fled to the territory of Ishuwa, that must have been part of Mitanni. A clause to return fugitives is part of many treaties between sovereign states and between rulers and vassal states, so perhaps the harbouring of fugitives by Ishuwa formed the pretext for the Hittite invasion.
A Hittite army crossed the border, entered Ishuwa and returned the fugitives (or deserters or exile governments) to Hittite rule. "I freed the lands that I captured; they dwelt in their places. All the people whom I released rejoined their peoples, and Hatti incorporated their territories."
The Hittite army then marched through various districts towards Washukanni. Suppiluliuma claims to have plundered the area, and to have brought loot, captives, cattle, sheep and horses back to Hatti. He also claims that Tushratta fled, though obviously he failed to capture the capital. While the campaign weakened Mitanni, it did not endanger its existence.
In a second campaign, the Hittites again crossed the Euphrates and subdued Halab, Mukish, Niya, Arahati, Apina, and Qatna, as well as some cities whose names have not been preserved. The booty from Arahati included charioteers, who were brought to Hatti together with all their possessions. While it was common practice to incorporate enemy soldiers in the army, this might point to a Hittite attempt to counter the most potent weapon of Mitanni, the war-chariots, by building up or strengthening their own chariot forces.
All in all, Suppiluliuma claims to have conquered the lands "from Mount Lebanon and from the far bank of the Euphrates". But Hittite governors or vassal rulers are mentioned only for some cities and kingdoms. While the Hittites made some territorial gains in western Syria, it seems unlikely that they established a permanent rule east of the Euphrates.
[edit] Shattiwaza
A son of Tushratta conspired with his subjects, and killed his father in order to become king. His brother Shattiwaza was forced to flee. In the unrest that followed, the Assyrians asserted their independence under Ashur-uballit, and with the Alsheans invaded the country; and the pretender Artatama/Atratama II gained ascendancy, followed by his son Shuttarna. Suppiluliuma claims that "the entire land of Mittanni went to ruin, and the land of Assyria and the land of Alshi divided it between them", but this sounds more like wishful thinking. This Shuttarna maintained good relations with Assyria, and returned to it the palace doors of Asshur, that had been taken by Shaushtatar. Such booty formed a powerful political symbol in ancient Mesopotamia.
The fugitive Shattiwaza may have gone to Babylon first, but eventually ended up at the court of the Hittite king, who married him to one of his daughters. The treaty between Suppiluliuma of Hatti and Shattiwaza of Mitanni has been preserved and is one of the main sources on this period. After the conclusion of the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza treaty, Piyashshili, a son of Suppiluliuma, led a Hittite army into Mitanni. According to Hittite sources, Piyashshili and Shattiwaza crossed the Euphrates at Carchemish, then marched against Irridu in Hurrite territory. They sent messengers from the west bank of the Euphrates and seemed to have expected a friendly welcome, but the people were loyal to their new ruler, influenced, as Suppiluliuma claims, by the riches of Tushratta. "Why are you coming? If you are coming for battle, come, but you shall not return to the land of the Great King!" they taunted. Shuttarna had sent men to strengthen the troops and chariots of the district of Irridu, but the Hittite army won the battle, and the people of Irridu sued for peace.
Meanwhile, an Assyrian army "led by a single charioteer" marched on Washshukanni. It seems that Shuttarna had sought Assyrian aid in the face of the Hittite threat. Possibly the force sent did not meet his expectations, or he changed his mind. In any case, the Assyrian army was refused entrance, and set instead to besiege the capital. This seems to have turned the mood against Shuttarna; perhaps the majority of the inhabitants of Washshukanni decided they were better off with the Hittite Empire than with their former subjects. Anyway, a messenger was sent to Piyashshili and Shattiwaza at Irridu, who delivered his message in public, at the city gate. Piyashshili and Shattiwaza marched on Washukanni, and the cities of Harran and Pakarripa seem to have surrendered to them.
While at Pakarripa, a desolate country where the troops suffered hunger, they received word of an Assyrian advance, but the enemy never materialised. The allies pursued the retreating Assyrian troops to Nilap_ini but could not force a confrontation. The Assyrians seem to have retreated home in the face of the superior force of the Hittites.
Shattiwaza became king of Mitanni, but after Suppililiuma had taken Carchemish and the land west of the Euphrates, that were governed by his son Piyashshili, Mitanni was restricted to the Khabur and Balikh valleys, and became more and more dependent on their allies in Hatti. Some scholars speak of a Hittite puppet kingdom, a buffer-state against Assyria.
Assyria under Ashur-uballit I began to infringe on Mitanni as well. Its vassal state of Nuzi east of the Tigris was conquered and destroyed.
[edit] Shattuara I
The royal inscriptions of Adad-nirari I (c. 1307-1275) relate how King Shattuara of Mitanni rebelled and committed hostile acts against Assyria. How this Shattuara was related to the dynasty of Partatama is unclear. Some scholars think that he was the second son of Artatama II, and the brother of Shattiwazza's one-time rival Shuttarna. Adad-nirari claims to have captured King Shattuara and brought him to Asshur, where he took an oath as a vassal. Afterwards, he was allowed to return to Mitanni, where he paid Adad-nirari regular tribute. This must have happened during the reign of the Hittite King Mursili II, but there is no exact date.
[edit] Wasashatta
Despite Assyrian strength, Shattuara's son Wasashatta rebelled. He sought Hittite help, but that kingdom was preoccupied with internal struggles, possibly connected with the usurpation of Hattusili III, who had driven his nephew Urhi-Teshup into exile. The Hittites took Wasashatta's money but did not help, as Adad-nirari's inscriptions gleefully note.
The Assyrians conquered the royal city of Taidu, and took Washshukannu, Amasakku, Kahat, Shuru, Nabula, Hurra and Shuduhu as well. They conquered Irridu, destroyed it utterly and sowed salt over it. The wife, sons and daughters of Wasashatta were taken to Asshur, together with lots of loot and other prisoners. As Wasashatta himself is not mentioned, he must have escaped capture. There are letters of Wasashatta in the Hittite archives. Some scholars think he became ruler of a reduced Mitanni state called Shubria.
While Adad-nirari I conquered the Mitanni heartland between the Balikh and the Khabur, he does not seem to have crossed the Euphrates, and Carchemish remained part of the Hittite kingdom. With his victory over Mitanni, Adad-nirari claimed the title of Great King (sharru rabû) in letters to the Hittite rulers, who still did not consider him as an equal.
[edit] Shattuara II
In the reign of Shalmaneser I (1270s-1240s) King Shattuara of Mitanni, a son or nephew of Wasahatta, rebelled against the Assyrian yoke with the help of the Hittites and the nomadic Ahlamu around 1250 BC. His army was well prepared; they had occupied all the mountain passes and waterholes, so that the Assyrian army suffered from thirst during their advance.
Nevertheless, Shalmaneser won a crushing victory. He claims to have slain 14,400 men; the rest were blinded and carried away. His inscriptions mention the conquest of nine fortified temples; 180 Hurrian cities were "turned into rubble mounds", and Shalmaneser "…slaughtered like sheep the armies of the Hittites and the Ahlamu his allies…". The cities from Taidu to Irridu were captured, as well as all of mount Kashiar to Eluhat and the fortresses of Sudu and Harranu to Carchemish on the Euphrates. Another inscription mentions the construction of a temple to Adad in Kahat, a city of Mitanni that must have been occupied as well.
[edit] Hanigalbat as an Assyrian Province
A part of the population was deported and served as cheap labour. Administrative documents mention barley allotted to "uprooted men", deportees from Mitanni. For example, the governor of the city Nahur, Meli-Sah received barley to be distributed to deported persons from Shuduhu "as seed, food for their oxen and for themselves". The Assyrians built a line of frontier fortifications against the Hittites on the Balikh.
Mitanni was now ruled by the Assyrian grand-vizier Ili-ippada, a member of the Royal familiy, who took the title of king (sharru) of Hanilgalbat. He resided in the newly built Assyrian administrative centre at Tell Sabi Abyad, governed by the Assyrian steward Tammitte. Assyrians maintained not only military and political control, but seem to have dominated trade as well, as no Hurrian names appear in private records of Shalmaneser's time.
Under Tukulti-Ninurta I (c. 1243-1207) there were again numerous deportations from Hanilgalbat (Mitanni) to Assur, probably in connection with the construction of a new palace. As the royal inscriptions mention an invasion of Hanilgalbat by a Hittite king, there may have been a new rebellion, or at least native support of a Hittite invasion. The Assyrian towns may have been sacked at this time, as destruction levels have been found in some excavations that cannot be dated with precision, however. Tell Sabi Abyad, seat of the Assyrian government in the times of Shalmaneser, was deserted sometime between 1200 and 1150 B.C.
In the time of Assur-nirari III, the Mushku and other tribes invaded Hanilgalbat and it was lost to Assyrian rule. The Hurrians still held Katmuhu and Paphu.
[edit] Neo-Assyrian times
Within a few centuries of the fall of Washshukanni to Assyria, Mitanni became fully Aramaized, and use of the Hurrian language began to be discouraged throughout the Assyrian Empire. However, a dialect closely related to Hurrian seems to have survived in the "new" state of Urartu, in the mountainous areas to the north. In the inscriptions of Adad-nirari II, Assurbanipal II and Shalmaneser III, Hanigalbat is still used as a geographical term, probably as a conscious archaism.
[edit] Indo-Aryan superstrate
Some theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate, suggesting that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrian population in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion. In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are invoked. Kikkuli's horse training text includes technical terms such as aika (eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza (pancha, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana (vartana, round). Another text has babru (babhru, brown), parita (palita, grey), and pinkara (pingala, red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya, the term for warrior in Sanskrit as well.
Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Shuttarna as Sutarna ("good sun"), Baratarna as Paratarna ("great sun"), Parsatatar as Parashukshatra ("ruler with axe"), Saustatar as Saukshatra ("son of Sukshatra, the good ruler"), Artatama as "most righteous", Tushratta as Dasharatha ("having ten chariots"?), and, finally, Mattivaza as Mativaja ("whose wealth is prayer"). Some scholars believe that not only the kings had Indo-Aryan names; a large number of other names resembling Sanskrit have been unearthed in records from the area.
It has been widely conjectured that this original Mitanni aristocracy who bore Indo-Aryan names, had emigrated from the north and imposed themselves upon the indigenous Hurrians of Syria who were not Indo-Aryan, although historical clues are scarce. Some[citation needed] have attempted to connect the name M(a)itanni with Madai (Medes), an Iranian people which established an empire to the West centuries later. In addition, Kurdish scholars believe that one of their clans, the Mattini which live in the same geographical region, preserves the name of Mitanni [3]. Archaeologists have attested a striking parallel in the spread to Syria of a distinct pottery type associated with what they call the Kura-Araxes culture, however the dates they usually assign for this are somewhat earlier than the Mitanni are thought to have first arrived.
Finally, for what it's worth, Eusebius, writing in the early 4th century, quotes fragments of Eupolemus, a now-lost Jewish historian of the 2nd century BC, as saying that "around the time of Abraham, the Armenians invaded the Syrians", corresponding approximately to the arrival of the Mitanni, since Abraham is traditionally assumed at around 1700 BC, and the Mitanni would have entered Assyria from the area known as Armenia in Eupolemus' time.
[edit] Mitanni rulers
* Kirta 1500 BC-1490 BC
* Shuttarna I, son of Kirta 1490 BC-1470 BC
* Barattarna, P/Barat(t)ama 1470 BC-1450 BC
* Parshatatar, (may be identical with Barattarna) 1450 BC-1440 BC
* Shaushtatar (son of Parsha(ta) tar) 1440 BC-1410 BC
* Artatama I 1410 BC-1400 BC
* Shuttarna II 1400 BC-1385 BC
* Artashumara 1385 BC-1380 BC
* Tushratta 1380 BC-1350 BC
* Shuttarna III 1350 BC, son of an usurper Artatama II
* Shattiwaza or Mattivaza, son of Tushratta 1350 BC-1320 BC
* Shattuara I 1320 BC-1300 BC
* Wasashatta, son of Shattuara 1300 BC-1280 BC
* Shattuara II, son or nephew of Wasashatta 1280 BC-1270 BC, or maybe the same king as Shattuara I.
Descendants of Indian traders and commoners in Central Asia - Luli
Luli or Lyuli [lju`li:] are a people from Central Asia, primarily Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. They are also known as Central Asian Gypsies or False Romas.
Probably, like the Roma, they originate from India. The Luli practice Islam. They have a clan organization (Luli for clan is tupar). Division into sub-clans is also practiced. The Luli community is extremely closed towards non-Luli. [1]
Luli speak a Luli dialect of Domari language.[2]
Contents
1 Luli in Kyrgyzstan
2 Luli in Russia
3 References
4 External links
Luli in Kyrgyzstan
The Luli live in the south of Kyrgyzstan, Osh oblast. Their living standard is extremely low. Many children are devoid of education in their mother tongue and many people have no documents. Luli society is working towards improvement of their living standards and preservation of their culture.[3]
Luli in Russia
In the beginning of the 1990s, Luli started migrating into Russian cities, placing especially near railway stations and markets. At first, Russians mistakenly identified them as Tajik refugees, ethnically Tajiks and Uzbeks, due to their dress in traditional Oriental robes.
Russian Romas disclaim any relationship to the Luli people. However, Russians consider the Luli to be Gypsies, due their mode of life. Many Luli move from one city to another, and many Luli women and children make a living by begging. This fact, and the association of Central Asian people with drug traffic and international terrorism, gave rise to tensions between Luli and Russians. Luli are a frequent target of Russian far right skinheads.
The Roma People (singular Rom; sometimes Rroma, Rrom), sometimes called "Romany Folk" in the United Kingdom, often referred to as Gypsies or Gipsies, are a diverse ethnic group who live primarily in Southern and Eastern Europe, Western Asia, Latin America, the southern part of the United States and the Middle East. They are believed to have originated mostly from the Punjab and Rajasthan regions of India. They began their migration to Europe and North Africa via the Iranian plateau around 1050.[18]
Traditionally most Roma spoke Romani (Romany), an Indo-Aryan language. Today, however, most Roma speak the dominant language of their region of residence.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Population
* 2 History
* 3 Society and culture
o 3.1 Religion
o 3.2 Music
* 4 Language
* 5 Etymology
* 6 Genetics
* 7 Relations with other peoples
o 7.1 Persecution
o 7.2 Assimilation
o 7.3 Roma and crime
o 7.4 Roma in Central and Eastern Europe
o 7.5 Roma in Spain
o 7.6 Roma in Israel
* 8 Fictional representations of Roma
* 9 Groups in Europe sometimes mistaken for Roma
* 10 Notes
* 11 References
* 12 See also
* 13 Further reading
* 14 External links
o 14.1 Non-governmental organisations
o 14.2 Roma news media sources
o 14.3 Museums and Libraries
[edit] Population
Worldwide, there are an estimated 8 to 10 million Roma, most of whom reside in Europe. Although the largest Roma populations are found in the Balkan peninsula, significant numbers may also be found in the Americas, the former Soviet Union, Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.
The Roma recognize divisions among themselves based in part on territorial, cultural and dialectal differences. Some authorities[citation needed] recognize five main groups:
1. Kalderash are the most numerous, traditionally coppersmiths, from the Balkans, many of whom migrated to central Europe and North America;
2. Gitanos (also called Calé) mostly in the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa, and southern France; associated with entertainment;
3. Sinti (also known as Manush) mostly in Alsace and other regions of France and Germany; often travelling showmen and circus people;
4. Romnichal (Rom'nies) mainly in Britain and North America; and
5. Erlides (also known as Yerlii or Arli) settled in Southeastern Europe and Turkey.
Each of these main divisions may be further divided into two or more subgroups distinguished by occupational specialization or territorial origin, or both. Some of these group names are: Machvaya (Machwaya), Lovari, Churari, Rudari, Boyash, Ludar, Luri, Xoraxai, Ungaritza, Bashaldé, Ursari and Romungro.
[edit] History
Main article: History of the Roma people
First arrival of the Roma outside Berne in the 15th century, described by the chronicler as getoufte heiden "baptized heathens" and drawn with dark skin and wearing Saracen style clothes and weapons (Spiezer Schilling, p. 749).
Enlarge
First arrival of the Roma outside Berne in the 15th century, described by the chronicler as getoufte heiden "baptized heathens" and drawn with dark skin and wearing Saracen style clothes and weapons (Spiezer Schilling, p. 749).
Linguistic and genetic evidence indicates the Roma originated on the Indian Subcontinent[7]. The cause of the Roma diaspora is unknown. One theory suggests the Roma were originally low-caste Hindus recruited into an army of mercenaries, granted warrior caste status, and sent westwards to resist Islamic military expansion. Or perhaps the Muslim conquerors of northern India took the Roma as slaves and brought them home, where they became a distinct community; Mahmud of Ghazni reportedly took 500,000 prisoners during a Turkish/Persian invasion of Sindh and Punjab. Why the Roma did not return to India, choosing instead to travel west into Europe, is an enigma, but may relate to military service under the Muslims.
Contemporary scholars have suggested one of the first written references to the Roma, under the term "Atsingani", (derived from the Greek atsinganoi), dates from the Byzantine era during a time of famine in the 9th century. In the year 800 A.D., Saint Athanasia gave food to "foreigners called the Atsingani" near Thrace. Later, in 803 A.D., Theophanes the Confessor wrote that Emperor Nikephoros I had the help of the "Atsingani" to put down a riot with their "knowledge of magic".
"Atsinganoi" was used to refer to itinerant fortune tellers, ventriloquists and wizards who visited the Emperor Constantine IX in the year 1054.[19] The hagiographical text, The Life of St. George the Anchorite, mentions that the "Atsingani" were called on by Constantine to help rid his forests of the wild animals which were killing off his livestock. They are later described as sorcerers and evildoers and accused of trying to poison the Emperor's favorite hound.
In 1322 a Franciscan monk named Simon Simeonis described people in likeness to the "atsingani" living in Crete and in 1350 Ludolphus of Sudheim mentioned a similar people with a unique language who he called Mandapolos, a word which some theorize was possibly derived from the Greek word mantes (meaning prophet or fortune teller).[20]
Around 1360, an independent Romani fiefdom (called the Feudum Acinganorum) was established in Corfu and became "a settled community and an important and established part of the economy."[21]
By the 14th century, the Roma had reached the Balkans; by 1424, Germany; and by the 16th century, Scotland and Sweden. Some Roma migrated from Persia through North Africa, reaching Europe via Spain in the 15th century. The two currents met in France. Roma began immigrating to the United States in colonial times, with small groups in Virginia and French Louisiana. Larger-scale immigration began in the 1860s, with groups of Romnichal from Britain. The largest number immigrated in the early 1900s, mainly from the Vlax group of Kalderash. Many Roma also settled in Latin America.
Wherever they arrived in Europe, curiosity was soon followed by hostility and xenophobia. Roma were enslaved for five centuries in Romania until abolition in 1864. Elsewhere in Europe, they were subject to ethnic cleansing, abduction of their children, and forced labor. During World War II, the Nazis murdered 200,000 to 800,000 Roma in an attempted genocide known as the Porajmos. Like the Jews, they were sentenced to forced labour and imprisonment in concentration camps. They were often killed on sight, especially by the Einsatzgruppen on the Eastern Front.
In Communist Eastern Europe, Roma experienced assimilation schemes and restrictions of cultural freedom. The Romani language and Roma music were banned from public performance in Bulgaria. In Czechoslovakia, they were labeled a "socially degraded stratum," and Roma women were sterilized as part of a state policy to reduce their population. This policy was implemented with large financial incentives, threats of denying future social welfare payments, misinformation, and involuntary sterilization (Silverman 1995; Helsinki Watch 1991). In the early 1990s, Germany deported tens of thousands of illegal immigrants to Eastern Europe. Sixty percent of some 100,000 Romanian nationals deported under a 1992 treaty were Roma.
[edit] Society and culture
Main article: Roma society and culture
A Gipsy Family - Facsimile of a woodcut in the "Cosmographie Universelle" of Munster: in folio, Basle, 1552.
Enlarge
A Gipsy Family - Facsimile of a woodcut in the "Cosmographie Universelle" of Munster: in folio, Basle, 1552.
The traditional Roma place a high value on the extended family. Virginity is essential in unmarried women. Both men and women often marry young; there has been controversy in several countries over the Roma practice of child marriage. Roma law establishes that the man's family must pay a dower to the bride's parents.
Roma social behaviour is strictly regulated by purity laws ("marime" or "marhime"), still respected by most Roma and among Sinti groups by the older generations. This regulation affects many aspects of life, and is applied to actions, people and things: parts of the human body are considered impure: the genital organs, because they produce impure emissions, and the lower body. Fingernails and toenails must be filed with an emery board, as cutting them with a clipper is taboo. Clothes for the lower body, as well as the clothes of menstruating women are washed separately. Items used for eating are also washed in a different place. Childbirth is considered impure, and must occur outside the dwelling place. The mother is considered impure for forty days. Death is considered impure, and affects the whole family of the dead, who remain impure for a period of time. Many of these practices are also present in cultures such as the Balinese. However, in contrast to the practice of cremating the dead, Roma dead must be buried[citation needed]. It is possible that this tradition was adapted from Abrahamic religions after the Roma left the Indian subcontinent.
[edit] Religion
Roma have usually adopted the dominant religion of the host country while often preserving aspects of their particular belief systems and indigenous religion and worship. Most Eastern European Roma are Catholic, Orthodox Christian or Muslim. Those in Western Europe and the United States are mostly Catholic or Protestant. Most Roma in Latin America are Orthodox. In Turkey, Egypt, and the southern Balkans, the Roma are split into Christian and Muslim populations.
Roma religion has a highly developed sense of morality, taboos, and the supernatural, though it is often denigrated by organized religions. It has been suggested that while still in India the Roma people belonged to the Hindu religion, this theory being supported by the Romani word for "cross", trushul, which is the word which describes Shiva's trident (Trishula).
Since World War II, a growing number of Roma have embraced Evangelical movements. Over the past half-century, Roma have become ministers and created their own churches and missionary organizations for the first time.[8] In some countries, the majority of Roma now belong to the Roma churches. This unexpected change has greatly contributed to a better image of Roma in society. The work they perform is seen as more legitimate, and they have begun to obtain legal permits for commercial activities.
Evangelical Roma churches exist today in every country where Roma are settled. The movement is particularly strong in France and Spain; there are more than one thousand Roma churches (known as "Filadelfia") in Spain, with almost one hundred in Madrid alone. In Germany, the most numerous group is that of Polish Roma, having their main church in Mannheim. Other important and numerous Romani assemblies exist in Los Angeles, Houston, Buenos Aires and Mexico. Some groups in Romania and Chile have joined the Seventh-day Adventist Church.
In the Balkans, the Roma of Macedonia, Kosovo (Southern province of Serbia) and Albania have been particularly active in Islamic mystical brotherhoods (Sufism). Muslim Roma immigrants to Western Europe and America have brought these traditions with them.[citation needed]
[edit] Music
Main article: Roma music
Roma music is very important in Eastern European cultures such as Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania, Hungary, Russia and Romania, and the style and performance practices of Roma musicians have influenced European classical composers such as Franz Liszt and Johannes Brahms. The lăutari who perform at traditional Romanian weddings are virtually all Roma, although their music draws from a vast variety of ethnic traditions—for example Romanian, Turkish, Jewish, and Slavic—as well as Roma traditions. Probably the most internationally prominent contemporary performers in the lăutar tradition are Taraful Haiducilor. Many famous classical musicians, such as the Hungarian pianist Georges Cziffra, are Roma, as are many prominent performers of manele. Zdob şi Zdub, one of the most prominent rock bands in Moldova, although not Roma themselves, draw heavily on Roma music, as do Spitalul de Urgenţă in Romania, Goran Bregović in Serbia and Darko Rundek in Croatia.
The distinctive sound of Roma music has also strongly influenced bolero, jazz, flamenco (especially cante jondo) in Europe. European-style Gypsy jazz is still widely practised among the original creators (the Roma People); one who acknowledged this artistic debt was guitarist Django Reinhardt.
The Roma of Turkey have achieved musical acclaim from local audiences. They perform for special holidays. Their music is usually performed on traditonal Turkish instruments such as the darbuka and saz. One of the most prominent Turkish Roma groups are Gypsy Music of Constantinople[citation needed].
Later, Roma people who came to the Americas contributed to almost every musical style. Salsa, rumba, mambo and guajira from Cuba, the tondero, zamacueca and marinera from Peru, mariachi music from Mexico, "llanero" from the borders of Venezuela and Colombia, and even American country music have all been influenced by their mournful violins and soulful guitar.
The Roma anthem is called Gelem, Gelem.
[edit] Language
Main article: Romani language
Most Roma speak Romani, an Indo-Aryan language. Today, however, most Roma also speak the dominant language of their region of residence. Romani is not currently spoken in India.
Some Roma have developed creole languages or mixed languages, including:
* Caló or Iberian-Romani, which uses the Romani lexicon and Spanish grammar (the calé).
* Romungro or Carpathian Romani
* Lomavren or Armenian-Romani
* Angloromani or English-Romani
* Romano-Greek or Greek-Romani
* Traveller Norwegian/Swedish or Norwegian/Swedish-Romani
* Romano-Serbian or Serbian-Romani
* Boyash, a dialect of Romanian with Hungarian and Romani loanwords
* Sinti-Manouche-Sinti (Romani with German grammar)
[edit] Etymology
Most Roma refer to themselves as Rom. In the Romani language, Rom (man) derives from the Sanskrit ḍōma (man). Alternate spellings of "Rroma" for the people and "Rromanes" for the language, were rejected by the last World Romani Congress, which defined the universal Romani alphabet.
The English term Gypsy (or Gipsy), originates from the Greek word Αιγύπτοι (Aigyptoi), modern Greek γύφτοι (gyphtoi), in the erroneous belief that the Roma originated in Egypt, and were exiled as punishment for allegedly harboring the infant Jesus.[22] This ethnonym is not used by the Roma to describe themselves, and is often considered pejorative. However, the use of "gypsy" in English is now so pervasive that many Roma organizations use the word gypsy in their own names. In North America, the word "Gypsy" is often misunderstood as a reference to lifestyle or fashion, and not to the Roma ethnicity. The Spanish term gitano and the French term gitan may have the same origin.[23]
In most of continental Europe, Roma are known by many names, most of them similar to the Hungarian cigány (pronounced IPA /ˈʦiɡaːɲ/). Early Byzantium literature suggests that the various names now referring to Gypsies, such as tzigane, zincali, gitani, cigány, etc., are derived from the Greek ατσίγγανοι (atsinganoi, Latin adsincani), applied to Roma during Byzantine times,[24] or from the Greek term αθίγγανοι (athinganoi)[25] in reference to a 9th-century heretical sect that had been accused of practising magic and fortune-telling.[26] In modern Greek, aside from the term Rom (Ρομ), the terms gyphtoi (Greek:γύφτοι) and tsigganoi (Greek:τσιγγάνοι) are interchangeable and both are used when referring to the Roma.
Outside Europe, Roma are referred to by more varied names, such as Kowli (کولی) in Iran; Lambani, Labana Lambadi, Rabari or Banjara in India; Ghajar (غجر) or Nawar (نور') in Arabic; and tzo`anim צוענים in Hebrew (after an ancient city in Egypt and the biblical verb צענ ṣā‛an - roaming).
There is no direct connection between the name Roma (ethnicity) and the city of Rome, ancient Rome, Romania, the Romanian people or the Romanian language.
[edit] Genetics
To meet Wikipedia's quality standards, this section may require cleanup.
Please discuss this issue on the talk page, and/or replace this tag with a more specific message. Editing help is available.
This section has been tagged since October 2006.
Gipsy Encampment - facsimile of a copper-plate by Callot.
Enlarge
Gipsy Encampment - facsimile of a copper-plate by Callot.
Spanish Roma (1917)
Enlarge
Spanish Roma (1917)
Genetic data strongly supports linguistic evidence that the Roma originated on the Indian subcontinent. Studies of Bulgarian, Baltic and Vlax Roma genetics suggest that about 50% of observed haplotypes belong to Y-chromosomal haplogroup H. Similar studies of the same population with mitochondrial DNA show 50% belong to female mitochondrial haplogroup M. Both of these are widespread across South Asia.
This genetic evidence indicates that approximately half of the gene pool of these studied Roma is similar to that of the surrounding European populations. Specifically, common Y-chromosome (i.e. male-line) haplogroups are haplogroups H (50%), I (22%) and J2 (14%), and R1b (7%). Common mitochondrial (i.e. female-line) haplogroups are H (35%), M (26%), U3 (10%), X (7%), other (20%). Whereas male haplogroup H and female M are rare in non-Roma European populations, the rest are found throughout Europe. However, female haplogroups U2i and U7 are almost absent from female Roma, but are present in South Asia (11%-35% approx).
By contrast, male Sinti Roma in Central Europe have H (20%), J2 (20%) and a high frequency of R2 (50%) which is found frequently in West Bengal and among the Sinhalese of Sri Lanka. The M217 marker, which accounts for about 1.6% of male Roma, is also found in West Bengal (Kivisild (2003) et al). Haplogroup L is found in about 10% of Indian males but is absent from Roma (though Gresham et al. does not seem to test for it), and also from West Bengal and Central Asian Sinti (Kivisild (2003) et al). However, a search of the Yhrd database shows that some Roma populations in Europe have considerable percentages of male haplogroup R1a1. Yhrd gives few matches with South Asian populations, but a large number of matches on haplogroup H with British Asian Londoners, a population that has a large proportion of Bengali and Sri Lankan groups.
All these genetic studies indicate a South-East Indian origin of the male Roma population. Haplogroup R1a1 occurs around 35-45% in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent, but only 10-15% in the southeast. On the other hand, Y-haplogroups H, R2 and J2 increase in frequency towards the southeast. R2 occurs around 20-40% in West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh (Bamshad et al. 2001, Kivisild et al. 2003, Sengupta et al. 2006, Sahoo et al. 2006). H and J2 occur 20-30% in South and East India. A study published in Nature[citation needed] associates the Roma with the Sinhala, and must be viewed from this genetic profile of Romas. Sinhalese are mostly descendants of East and South Indian communities.
Luba Kalaydjieva's research has shown that the original group appeared in India some 32-40 generations ago and was small, likely under 1,000 people.
(Ref: Origins and Divergence of the Roma (Gypsies), David Gresham, Bharti Morar, Peter A. Underhill, et al, Am J Hum (2001); The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity, Wells et al.)
[edit] Relations with other peoples
Roma arrivals at the Belzec death camp await instructions.
Enlarge
Roma arrivals at the Belzec death camp await instructions.
[edit] Persecution
Because of their nomadic lifestyle and differences in language and culture, there has been a great deal of mutual distrust between the Roma and their more settled neighbours. According to legend in some European nations, particularly in the Black Forest region, at the time of the Crucifixion, no blacksmith would make the nails for the cross. One blacksmith agreed to do so, however, and the spirit of these nails came back to haunt him and his family some years later, forcing them to constantly wander and become the Roma[citation needed]. Another legend has it that one of the Rom stole the nail that had been made to drive through Jesus' heart, thereby gaining the gratitude of Heaven and the right to steal as they wish for all the Rom[citation needed]. Persecution of Roma reached a peak during World War II in the Porajmos, the Nazi genocide of Roma during the Holocaust. The extermination in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was so thorough that the Bohemian Romani language became totally extinct as a result.
There are still tensions between the Roma and the majority populations around them. Common complaints are that Roma steal and live off social welfare, and residents often reject Roma encampments.
In the UK, "travellers" (referring to Irish Travellers and New Age Travellers as well as Roma) became a 2005 general election issue, with the leader of the Conservative Party promising to review the Human Rights Act 1998. This law, which absorbs the European Convention on Human Rights into UK primary legislation, is seen by some to permit the granting of retrospective planning permission. Severe population pressures and the paucity of greenfield sites have led to travellers purchasing land, and setting up residential settlements almost overnight, thus subverting the planning restrictions imposed on other members of the community.
Travellers argued in response that thousands of retrospective planning permissions are granted in Britain in cases involving non-Roma applicants each year and that statistics showed that 90% of planning applications by Roma and travellers were initially refused by local councils, compared with a national average of 20% for other applicants, disproving claims of preferrential treatment favouring Roma. [9]
They also argued that the root of the problem was that many traditional stopping-places had been barricaded off and that legislation passed by the previous Conservative government had effectively criminalised their community, for example by removing local authorities' responsibility to provide sites, thus leaving the travellers with no option but to purchase unregistered new sites themselves. [10]
In Denmark there was much controversy when the city of Helsingør decided to put all Roma students in special classes in its public schools. The classes were later abandoned after it was determined that they were discriminatory, and the Roma were put back in regular classes. Reference page in Danish
Despite the low birth rate in the country, Bulgaria's Health Ministry is considering a law aimed to curb the birth rate among minority groups, particularly Roma.[27]
[edit] Assimilation
During the Enlightenment, Spain briefly and unsuccessfully tried to assimilate the Roma into the mainstream population by forcing them to abandon their language and way of life; even the word gitano was made illegal. Many nations have subsequently attempted to assimilate their Roma populations.
[edit] Roma and crime
The popular image of Roma as tramps and thieves unfit for work contributed to their widespread persecution. This belief is often cited as the etymological source of the term gyp, meaning to "cheat", as in "I got gypped by a con man." The German name Zigeuner is often thought through popular etymology to derive either from Ziehende Gauner, which means 'travelling thieves', or from the Hungarian Cigány from their word "szegény" meaning "poor". The validity of these derivations, however, is disputed.
Roma in European population centers are often associated with petty crime such as pickpocketing. A UN study [11] found that Roma in Eastern European countries such as Bulgaria are arrested for robbery at a much higher rate than other groups. The causes of this association are unclear; it may be due to police discrimination, selective reporting of race, or widespread poverty among the Roma, or could be due to cultural factors within the Roma themselves.
Law enforcement agencies in the United States hold regular conferences on the Roma and similar nomadic groups. It is common to refer to the operators of certain types of travelling con artists [12] and fortune-telling [13] businesses as "gypsies," although many are Irish Travellers or not members of any particular nomadic ethnic group.
[edit] Roma in Central and Eastern Europe
Main article: Roma in Central and Eastern Europe
A significant proportion of the world's Roma live in Central and Eastern Europe, often in depressed squatter communities with very high unemployment, while only some are fully integrated in the society. However, in some cases—notably the Kalderash clan in Romania, who work as traditional coppersmiths—they have prospered. The current and historical situation of Roma in the region differs from country to country. Although small numbers of Roma still embrace a nomadic lifestyle, most migration is actually forced, as most communities do not accept Roma settlements.
[edit] Roma in Spain
Main article: Roma in Spain
Roma in Spain are generally known as Gitanos and tend to speak Caló which is basically Andalusian Spanish with a large amount of Romani loan words. Estimates of the Spanish Gitano population range as low as 600,000 and as high as 800,000 with the Spanish government estimating between 650,000 and 700,000.[14]
[edit] Roma in Israel
Roma in Israel, as in the rest of the Middle East, are known as Domari. Before 1948, there was an Arabic-speaking Domari community in Jaffa, whose members were noted for their involvement in street theatre and circus performances. They are the subject of the play "The Gypsies of Jaffa" (Hebrew: הצוענים של יפו), by the late Nissim Aloni, considered among Israel's foremost playwrights, and the play came to be considered a classic of the Israeli theatre (see [15]). Like most other Jaffa Palestinians, this community was uprooted in the face of the Israeli advance in April 1948, and its descendants are assumed to be presently living in the Gaza Strip refugee camps; it is unknown to what degree they still preserve a separate Domari identity. Another Domari community is known to exist in East Jerusalem. In October 1999, the nonprofit organisation "Domari: The Society of Gypsies in Jerusalem" was established by Amoun Sleem to advocate on this community's behalf.[16]
Some Eastern European Roma are known to have arrived in Israel in the late 1940s and early 1950s, having intermarried with Jews in the post-WWII Displaced Persons camps or, in some cases, having pretended to be Jews when Zionist agents arrived in those camps. The exact numbers of these Roma living in Israel are unknown, since such individuals tended to assimilate into the Israeli Jewish environment. According to several recent accounts in the Israeli press, some families preserve traditional Romani lullabies and a small number of Romani expressions and curse words, and pass them on to generations born in Israel who, for the most part, speak Hebrew.
Saint Sarah in her crypt.
Portal:Saints
Saints Portal
Saint Sarah is a patron saint venerated by the Roma (Gypsy) people. She is also known as Sara-la-Kali (Sara the black) (See McDowell, 1970, p.p. 38-57 for general information on Sarah, Roma and the Carmague). The center of her cult is Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, a place of pilgrimage for Roma in the Camargue, in southern France, where legend identifies her as the servant of the two saints Mary commemorated in the town. An alternative legend has her as a pagan of noble birth and being converted to the faith of Abraham.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Tradition
* 2 History
* 3 Possible influences
* 4 In fiction
* 5 References
* 6 External links
[edit] Tradition
In the traditional account, Saint Sarah was a native of Upper Egypt; after the Crucifixion of Jesus, Mary Salome, Mary Jacobe, and Mary Magdalene were cast adrift in a boat that arrived off the coast of what is now France "a sort of fortress named Oppdium-Râ", and the location was known as Notre-Dam-de-Ratis (Râ becoming Ratis, or boat)(Droit, 1961, 19); the name being changed to Notre-Dame-del-la-Mer, and then Le Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer in 1838. Some say that the boat arrived in AD 42, and they were accompanied by Saint Joseph of Arimathea and the Holy Grail. Sarah was the black Egyptian servant of Mary Salome and Mary Jacobe according to some, servant to Mary Magdalene according to others. Saint Sarah's feast day is 19th August. In France the official day of her pilgrimage is 24th May. Her statue is carried down to the sea on this day to reenact her arrival in France.
[edit] History
Though the tradition of the Marys and company coming to France is quite old (it appears in the 13th century Golden Legend, for instance), Sarah first appears in The Legend of the Saintes-Maries (1521) by Vincent Philippon. However, there are many different opinions as to who Saint Sarah is. In some, she is tied with the Maries as an Egyptian servant; in others, with the Roma. She is called Sarah-la-Kali (Black Sarah), a moniker that brings together two strands of this tradition. When the Maries' boat arrived at the shore where the village now stands, she taunted the three saints in the boat, and one of the Maries climbed out of the boat and stood on the rough waters, inviting Sarah to walk out to her. Sarah attempted this but floundered and nearly drowned. One of the Maries lifted her up and carried her to safety.
Droit explains that Sarah and the two Maries stayed to found a Christian community, building an altar to the Virgin themselves, which was excavated in 1448 on the orders of King René of Provence (Droit, 1961, 19)
Records of Saint Sarah's veneration are not found before 1800s.
[edit] Possible influences
It is interesting to note that Sarah-la-Kali (Black Sarah) is identified with the Indian goddess Kali (aka Bhadrakali, Uma, Durga, and Syama") (Fonseca, 1995, 106-107). Though it was traditionally believed that the Roma came from Egypt, it is now believed that they came from India around the 9th century. According to Lee:
if we compare the ceremonies with those performed in France at the shrine of Sainte Sara (called Sara e Kali in Romani), we become aware that the worship of Kali/Durga/Sara has been transferred to a Christian figure... in France, to a non-existent "sainte" called Sara, who is actually part of the Kali/Durga/Sara worship among certain groups in India. (Lee, 2001, 210)
That is, Saint Sarah is local and Christianized manifestation of Kali. Weyrauch notes that:
The ceremony in Saintes-Maries closely parallels the annual processions in India, the country in which the Roman orginated, when statues of the Indian goddess Durga, also named Kali, are immersed into water. Durga, the consort of Shiva, usually represented with a black face, is the goddess of creation, sickness and death. (Weyrauch, 2001, 262)
According to Franz de Ville (Tziganes, Brussels 1956), Sarah was Roma:
One of our people who received the first Revelation was Sara the Kali. She was of noble birth and was chief of her tribe on the banks of the Rhône. She knew the secrets that had been transmitted to her....The Rom at that period practiced a polytheistic religion, and once a year they took out on their shoulders the statue of Ishtari
Romani
Romani / रोमानी
Spoken in: The speakers of Romani are widespread and stateless
Total speakers: 4.8 million
Language family: Indo-European
Indo-Iranian
Indo-Aryan
Central Zone
Romani
Official status
Official language of: Shuto Orizari (Republic of Macedonia), officially-recognised minority language of Sweden, co-official in 79 rural communes in Romania and one town (Budeşti)
Regulated by: no official regulation
Language codes
ISO 639-1: none
ISO 639-2: rom
ISO/FDIS 639-3: variously:
rom — Romani (generic)
rmn — Balkan Romani
rml — Baltic Romani
rmc — Carpathian Romani
rmf — Kalo Finnish Romani
rmo — Sinte Romani
rmr — Caló (Spanish Romani)
rmy — Vlax Romani
rmw — Welsh Romani
Indic script
This page contains Indic text. Without rendering support you may see irregular vowel positioning and a lack of conjuncts. More...
Romani (or Romany) is the language of the Roma and Sinti, peoples often referred to in English as "Gypsies". The Indo-Aryan Romani language should not be confused with either Romanian (spoken by Romanians), or Romansh (spoken in parts of southeastern Switzerland), both of which are Romance languages.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Classification and status
* 2 History
* 3 Modern language
* 4 Standardization
* 5 Romani loanwords in English
* 6 Distribution
* 7 See also
* 8 External links
* 9 References
[edit] Classification and status
Analysis of the Romani language has shown that it is closely related to those spoken in northern India, Punjabi in particular. This linguistic relationship is believed to indicate the Roma's and Sinti's geographical origin. Loanwords in Romani make it possible to trace the pattern of their migration west. They came originally from the Indian subcontinent or what is now northern India and parts of Pakistan. The Romani language is usually included in the Central Indo-Aryan languages (together with Western Hindi, Bhili, Gujarati, Khandeshi, Rajasthani etc.). Current conjecture is that the origin of the name Sinti is the same as that of the toponym for the Sindh region of southeastern Pakistan and far western India (Rajasthan and Gujarat), around the lower Indus River. It was primarily through comparative linguistic studies of the Romani language with various north Indian dialects and languages that the origins of the Roma people were traced back to India.
Romani, Punjabi, and Pothohari share some identical words and similar grammatical systems. A 2003 study published in Nature suggests Romani is also related to Sinhalese,[1] presently spoken in Sri Lanka.
The Romani language is considered alternatively a group of dialects or a collection of related languages that comprise all the members of a single genetic subgroup.
While the language is nowhere official, there are attempts currently aimed at the creation of a standard language out of all variants (such as those from Romania, the USA, Sweden). Also, different variants of the language are now in the process of being codified in those countries with high Roma populations (for example, Slovakia).
[edit] History
There are no sure historical documents about the early phases of the Romani language. It was cited in the epic Shah Name by the 11th century Persian poet Firdausi. He wrote about the 10,000 or 12,000 Desi musicians who were given in the 5th century AD by King Shankal of Kanauj (in Sindh) to Bahram Gur the King of Persia and it was pointed out that they should be the ancestors of the Roma.
However, new research (Masica, 1991:221) shows this to be unlikely. The Romani language proves to be a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), not a Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA), as it would have to be to fit Firdausi's scheme. It has only two genders (masculine and feminine). Until around the year 1000, the Indo-Aryan languages (named MIA) had three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter). By the turn of the 2nd millennium they changed into the NIA phase, losing the neuter gender. Most of the neuter nouns became masculine while a few feminine, like the neuter अग्नि (agni) in the Prakrit became the feminine आग (āg) in Hindi and याग (yag) in Romani. The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages is proposed to prove that the change occurred in the Subcontinent. It is therefore believed that it was not possible that the Romas' ancestors left there prior to 1000.
It is known that the period of time around 1000 AD was one of great turmoil in the northern part of the Indian Subcontinent. The Muslim invasions wrought havoc and led to massive population movements. The scholar Ian Hancock and also W.R. Rishi wrote that the Roma ancestors left the Subcontinent as a result of these circumstances. Between the years 1001 and 1026, the Muslim Afghans and Turks known as Ghaznavids made seventeen invasions in the Punjab and Sindh areas, fighting against the local Hindus. The Rajputs played a major role in the resistance. They were a mixture of different jāti (castes) brought together by a common desire to repel the foreign invaders. There are accounts that many of them were captured and sent to Central Asia to be used as conscripts in further fighting, and that others left the war zone, heading west.
These movements of population involved many categories, because the Rajputs would go to war with their families and their associates frequently. The Romani language sustains the claimed Rajputic ancestry: most of the words related to war are of Indo-Aryan ancestry like bust (spear), patava (gaiters), xanrro (sword), tover (axe) [1]. The name for those who are not Roma, gaje derives from Prakritic gajja (civilian, domestic, non-military). There is an 80% match of Romani words of Persian origin with the Persian words in Urdu. The latter is the Indo-Aryan language (with many Persian and Arabic loans) that evolved in the new society of Desi converts to Islam or those captured by the Muslims (the word Urdu itself originally meant army). Also there are cultural similarities between Roma and Rajputs and DNA research demonstrates genetic proximity.
The short-lived Ghaznavid Empire was polyglot, but Persian was official. This could explain the share of Persian loanwords in Romani, loans from no earlier than 10th century Persian. However, the greatest changes to the Romani language occurred much further West. The Seljuks (who defeated the Ghaznavids in 1038), also defeated the Byzantine Empire in 1071 and conquered eastern Anatolia.
Historical documents relate the subsequent movement of populations from Central Asia to eastern Anatolia. It seems that it was here that, according to Ian Hancock's thesis, the Romani language evolved as a koine from the many Indo-Aryan languages spoken by the ancestors of the Roma. The original status of Romani as a lingua franca is supported by the vocabulary of Indo-Aryan origin. It cannot be linked to a certain area, but it includes words from all across the northern Subcontinent. During its development, it underwent a certain degree of influence from the local Greek. This influence is secondary in weight after the Indo-Aryan ancestry of the language, both in vocabulary and in grammar (there are some suffixes of Greek origin). Other Anatolian languages contributed to the creation of Romani as well (most notably Armenian).
This is also when it seems that the Roma developed their identity as a distinct people, abandoning the jātī differences. Moreover, they had to adapt to the life of the foreign lands and find economic niches for survival. Analysis of Romani vocabulary indicates that the Romas' ancestors were not originally nomadic. Indo-Aryan words like kher (house), udar (door), gav (village), thagar (king), balo (pig), khaini (hen), giv (wheat) seem to indicate a settled society instead. Words related to nomadism come from Anatolia, where this lifestyle first became common for the Roma. For example, grast (horse) and char (grass) are from Armenian, vurdon (waggon, cart) is from Kurdish, drom (road) and petalo (horseshoe) are from Greek. Also the skills of metalworking were acquired here: the words for metals (except for those for gold, silver and iron, which are Indo-Aryan) are from Greek and Armenian, as well as for the tools used in this field.
The Mongol invasion of Europe beginning in the first half of the 13th Century triggered another westward migration. The Roma arrived in Europe and afterwards spread to the other continents. The great distances between the scattered Romani groups led to the development of local community distinctions. The differing local influences have greatly affected the modern language, splitting it into a number of different (originally exclusively regional) dialects.
Today Romani is spoken by small groups in 42 European countries [2]. A project at Manchester University in England is transcribing Romani dialects, many of which are on the brink of extinction, for the first time. [3]
[edit] Modern language
Today's dialects of Romani are differentiated by the vocabulary accumulated since their departure from Anatolia, as well as through divergent phonemic evolutions and grammatical features. Many Roma no longer speak the language or speak various new contact languages from the local language with the addition of Romani vocabulary.
A long-standing common categorisation was a division between the Vlax (from Vlach) from non-Vlax dialects. Vlax are those Roma who lived many centuries in the territory of Romania. The main distinction between the two groups is the degree to which their vocabulary is borrowed from Romanian. Vlax-speaking groups include the great number of speakers (between half and two-thirds of all Romani speakers). Bernard Gillad Smith made first this distinction and coined the term Vlax in 1915 in the book The Report on the Gypsy tribes of North East Bulgaria. Subsequently, other groups of dialects were recognized, primarily based on geographical and vocabulary criteria, including:
* Balkan Romani: in Turkey, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro, Romania, Moldova and Ukraine
* Romani of Wales
* Romani of Finland
* Sinte: in Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Serbia, Montenegro, Slovenia, and Switzerland
* Carpathian Romani: in the Czech Republic, Poland (particularly in the south), Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Ukraine
* Baltic Romani: in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland (particularly in the north), Belarus, Ukraine and Russia
* Turkish dialects:
o Rumeli (Thrace) dialect (Thrace, Uskudar, a district on the Anatolian side of the Bosphorus): most loanwords are from Greek
o Anatolian dialect. Most loanwords are from Turkish, Kurdish and Persian
o Posha dialect, Armenian Gypsies from eastern Anatolia mostly nomads although some have settled in the region of Van, Turkey. The Kurds call them Mytryp (settled ones).
In the past several decades, some scholars have worked out a categorisation of Romani dialects from a linguistic point of view on the basis of historical evolution and isoglosses. In a series of articles (beginning from 1982), Marcel Courthiade proposed a new classification. He concentrates on the dialectal diversity of Romani in three successive strata of expansion, using the criteria of phonological and grammatical changes. Finding the common linguistic features of the dialects, he presents the historical evolution from the first stratum (the dialects closest to the Anatolian Romani of the 13th century) to the second and third strata. He also names as "pogadialects" (after the Pogadi dialect from Great Britain) those which have only a Romani vocabulary grafted into a non-Romani language.
A table of some dialectal differences:
First stratum Second stratum Third stratum
phirdom, phirdyom
phirdyum, phirjum
phirdem phirdem
guglipe(n)/guglipa
guglibe(n)/gugliba
guglipe(n)/guglipa
guglibe(n)/gugliba
guglimos
pani
khoni
kuni
pai, payi
khoi, khoyi
kui, kuyi
pai, payi
khoi, khoyi
kui, kuyi
ćhib shib shib
jeno zheno zheno
po po/mai mai
The first stratum includes the oldest dialects: Mechkari, Kabuji, Xanduri, Drindari, Erli, Arli, Bugurji, Mahajeri, Ursari (Rićhinari), Spoitori (Xoraxane), Karpatichi, Polska Roma, Kaale (from Finland), Sinto-manush, and the so-called Baltic dialects.
In the second there are Chergari, Gurbeti, Jambashi, Fichiri, Filipiji and a subgroup of the Vlax dialects of Romania and Bulgaria.
The third comprises the rest of the so-called Vlax dialects, including Kalderash, Lovari, Machvano.
Distribution of 2 crore Romani speakers in Europe according to Bakker et al. (2000) [4]. Percentage (%) shows the percentage of Romani speaking Roma population in each country.
Country Speakers %
Albania 90,000 95%
Austria 20,000 80%
Belarus 27,000 95%
Belgium 10,000 80%
Bosnia-Herzegowina 40,000 90%
Bulgaria 350,000 80%
Croatia 28,000 80%
Czech Republic 140,000 50%
Denmark 1,500 90%
Estonia 1,100 90%
Finland 3,000 90%
France 215,000 70%
Germany 85,000 70%
Greece 160,000 90%
Hungary 260,000 50%
Italy 42,000 90%
Latvia 18,500 90%
Lithuania 4,000 90%
Macedonia 215,000 90%
Moldova 56,000 90%
Netherlands 7,000 90%
Poland 4,000 90%
Romania 1,030,000 80%
Russia 405,000 80%
Serbia and Montenegro 380,000 90%
Slovakia 300,000 60%
Slovenia 8,000 90%
Spain 1,000 1%
Sweden 9,500 90%
Turkey 280,000 70%
Ukraine 113,000 90%
United Kingdom 1,000 0.5%
Veddahs - the great descendants of Ravana and his Yakkhas of Sri Lanka
Vedda Chief Tissahamy
Dambana Wanniya-laeto Chief Tissahamy (d. 1998)
Wanniyala-Aetto
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Wanniyala-Aetto, or "forest beings", perhaps more commonly known as "Veddas" or "Veddahs" (transliteration of "වැද්දා" in Sinhala, IPA /væddaː/) are an indigenous people of Sri Lanka, an island nation in the Indian Ocean.
Sri Lanka's indigenous inhabitants, the Veddas -- or Wanniya-laeto ('forest-dwellers') as they call themselves -- preserve a direct line of descent from the island's original Neolithic community dating from at least 18,000 BC and probably far earlier according to current scientific opinion. Even today, the surviving Wanniya-laeto community retains much of its own distinctive cyclic worldview, prehistoric cultural memory, and time-tested knowledge of their semi-evergreen dry monsoon forest habitat that has enabled their ancestor-revering culture to meet the diverse challenges to their collective identity and survival. With the impending extinction of Wanniya-laeto culture, however, Sri Lanka and the world stand to lose a rich body of indigenous lore and living ecological wisdom.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Roots
* 2 DNA studies
* 3 Subdivisions
* 4 Cultural aspects
o 4.1 Religion
o 4.2 Society
o 4.3 Music
o 4.4 Art
* 5 Livelihood
* 6 Place in History
* 7 Linguistics
* 8 Current status
* 9 References
* 10 External links
[edit] Roots
Human remains in Sri Lanka dating from as early as 18,000 BC show a genetic continuum with present-day Veddas.[1]
According to the ancient chronicle of Sinhalese royalty, the Mahavansa , the Pulindas (Veddhas) are descended from Prince Vijaya (6th-5th century BC) the founding father of the Sinhalese nation, through Kuveni, a woman of the "Yakkha" clan whom he had espoused. The Mahavansa relates that following the repudiation of Kuveni by Vijaya, in favour of a "Kshatriya" princess from the "Pandya" country, their two children, a boy and a girl, departed to the region of "Sumanakuta" (Adams Peak in the Ratnapura District) where they multiplied giving rise to the Veddhas. Anthropologists such as the Seligmanns (The Veddhas 1911) believe the Veddhas to be identical with the "Yakkhas" of yore.
Veddas are also mentioned in Robert Knox's history of his captivity by the King of Kandy in the 17th century. Knox described them as "wild men," but also said there was a "tamer sort," and that the latter sometimes served in the king's army.[2]
The Ratnapura District, which is part of the Sabaragamuva Province is known to have been inhabited by the Veddhas in the distant past. This has been shown by scholars like Nandadeva Wijesekera (Veddhas in transition 1964). Indeed, the very name Sabaragamuva is believed to have meant the village of the Sabaras or "forest barbarians". Such place-names as Veddha-gala (Veddha Rock), Veddha-ela (Veddha Canal) and Vedi-kanda (Veddha Mountain) in the Ratnapura District also bear testimony to this. As Wijesekera observes, a strong Veddha element is discernible in the population of Veddha-gala and its environs. As for the traditional Veddha lifestyle, a number of authorities have delved on this and we can easily describe their life-style as it existed in the past, and as it exists today.
[edit] DNA studies
DNA studies [citation needed] suggest that Wanniyala-Aetto may have been the ancestors of most Sri Lankans before the Indo-Aryan language speakers arrived from North India. Both Sinhala and Vedda lore says that the two races shared a few common ancestors.
[edit] Subdivisions
Sinhala-speaking Veddas are found primarily in the southeastern part of the country, especially in the vicinity of Bintenne in Uva District. There are also Sinhala-speaking Veddas who live in Anuradhapura District in the North Central Province.[3]
Another, largely distinct group, often termed Coast Veddas, is found in coastal areas of the Eastern Province, mostly between Batticaloa and Trincomalee. These Veddas speak Tamil as their primary language.
[edit] Cultural aspects
[edit] Religion
The interior Veddahs follow a mix of animism and nominal Buddhism where as the east coast Veddahs follow a mix of animism and nominal Hinduism known as folk Hinduism amongst anthropologists.
One of the most distinctive features of Vedda religion is the worship of dead ancestors: these are termed nae "yaku" among the Sinhala-speaking Veddas.[4] There are also peculiar deities that are unique to Veddas. One of them is "Kande Yakka".[5]
Both the sub divisions of the Veddas along with the Island's Buddhist, Hindu and Muslim communities venerate the temple complex situated at Kataragama, showing the syncretism that has evolved over 2,000 years of coexistence and assimilation. Kataragama is supposed to be the site at which the Hindu god Skanda or Murugan in Tamil met and married a local tribal girl, Valli, who in Sri Lanka is believed to have been a Vedda.[6]
There are a number of other shrines across the island, not as famous as Kataragama that are as sacred to the Veddas as well as to other communities.[6]
Veddha religion centred round a cult of ancestral spirits known as Ne yaku , whom the Veddhas invoked for game and yams.
[edit] Society
* Marriage
The Veddha marriage ceremony is a very simple affair. The ritual consists of the bride tying a bark rope (diya lanuva) of her own twisting, around the waist of the bridegroom. This is the essence of the Veddha marriage and is symbolic of the bride's acceptance of the man as her mate and life partner. Although marriage between cross-cousins was the norm until recently, this has changed significantly, with Veddha women even contracting marriages with their Sinhalese and Moor neighbours.
* Women
In Veddha society, woman is in many respects man's equal. She is entitled to similar inheritance. Descent is also reckoned through the female line. Monogamy is the general rule, though a widow would be frequently married by her husband s brother as a means of support and consolation. The women are said to make faithful wives and affectionate mothers.
* Death
Death too is a simple affair sans any ostentatious funeral ceremonies and the corpse of the deceased is promptly buried without much ado. Although the medical knowledge of the Veddha is limited, it nevertheless appears to be sufficient. For example, python oil (pimburu tel) a local remedy used for healing wounds, has proven to be very successful in the treatment of fractures, deep cuts and so on.
* Burials
Main article Burials of wanniyala aetto
Since the opening of colonisation schemes Veddha burials changed when they dug graves of about 4-5 feet in depth and left the body wrapped in some cloth and covered with leaves and earth.The Veddas also scooped the trunks of the Gadumba tree and laid the body between the scopped out wood planks held together and then buried.At the head of the grave were kept three open coconuts and a small bundle of wood, while at its foot were kept an opened coconut and an untouched coconut.Certain plants of the cactus species (pathok) were planted at the head of the grave, the middle and the foot their personal possessions like the bow and arrow, betel pouch, were also buried. This practice varied according to the different communities of the aboriginal settlements.The contents of the betel pouch of the deceased were eaten after his death, Never was a burial custom inherited to them.
In Vedda burial rituals the dead body was scented or smeared with some juice obtained from the leaves of jungle trees or a lime tree. The foot or the head of the grave was never lit either with fire or wax and water was not kept in a vessel by the grave side.
* Cult of the Dead
The Veddas believe in the cult of the dead. They worshipped and made incantations to their Nae Yakka (Relative Spirit) followed by other customary ritual (called the Kiri Koraha) which is still in vogue among the surviving gam veddas of Rathugala, Pollebedda Dambana and the Henanigala Vedda re-settlement (in Mahaweli systems off Mahiyangane).
They believed that the spirit of their dead would haunt them bringing forth diseases and calamity. To appease the dead spirit they invoke the blessings of the Nae Yakka and other spirits, like Bilinda Yakka, Kande Yakka followed by the dance ritual of Kirikoraha.
According to Sarasin Cousins (in 1886) and Seligmann's book - 'The Veddas' (1910).
"When man or woman dies from sickness, the body is left in the cave or rock shelter where the death took place, the body is not washed or dressed or ornamented in any way, but is generally allowed to be in the natural supine position and is covered with leaves and branches. This was formerly the universal custom and still persists among the less sophisticated Veddas who sometimes in addition place a large stone upon the chest for which no reason could be given, this is observed at Sitala Wanniya (off Polle-bedda close to Maha Oya), where the body is still covered with branches and left where the death occurred.
* Clothing
Until fairly recent times, the raiment of the Veddhas was remarkably scanty. In the case of men, it consisted only of a loincloth suspended with a string at the waist, while in the case of women, it comprised of a piece of cloth that extended from the navel to the knees. Today, however, Veddha attire is more modest, men wear a short sarong extending from the waist to the knees, while the womenfolk clad themselves in a garment similar to the Sinhalese diya-redda which extends from the breastline to the knees.
[edit] Music
Bori Bori Sellam-Sellam Bedo Wanniya,
Palletalawa Navinna-Pita Gosin Vetenne,
Malpivili genagene-Hele Kado Navinne,
Diyapivili Genagene-Thige Bo Haliskote Peni,
Ka tho ipal denne
(A Vedda honeycomb cutter's folk song)
Meaning of this song - The bees from yonder hills of Palle Talawa and Kade suck nectar from the flowers and made the honeycomb. So why should you give them undue pain when there is no honey by cutting the honeycomb.
[edit] Art
Vedda cave drawings such as those found at Hamangala provide graphic evidence of the sublime spiritual and artistic vision achieved by the ancestors of today's Wanniyala-Aetto people. Most researchers today agree that the artistes most likely were the Wanniyala-Aetto women who spent long hours in these caves waiting for their menfolk's return from the hunt.
Understood from this perspective, these cave drawings depict brilliant feats of Wanniyala-Aetto culture as seen through the eyes of its womenfolk. The simple yet graceful abstract figures are portrayed engaging in feats of vision an daring that place them firmly above even the greatest beasts of their jungle habitat.
The nimbus or halo about the human figures' heads represents the sun's disc and, equally, the sacred power bordering upon divinity that accrues not only to great hunters but to all those endowed with the vision to behold and apprehend the marvel of divinity in humble guise. Even up to modern times, the Wanniyala-Aetto used to swear oaths of truth by the divinity of the sun, saying 'upon Maha Suriyo Deviyo'.
Such cave drawings have long served as visual memory aids and as teaching tools for the transmission of ancestral wisdom traditions to succeeding generations. To this day, they provide silent testimony to the profound heights attained by Lanka's indigenous culture expressed with elegant simplicity that people of all communities may appreciate.
[edit] Livelihood
Veddas were originally hunter-gatherers. They used bows and arrows to hunt game, and also gathered wild plants and honey. Many Veddas also farm, frequently using slash and burn or swidden cultivation, which is called "chena" in Sri Lanka. East Coast Veddas also practice fishing.Veddhas are famously known for their rich meat diet. Venison and the flesh of rabbit, turtle, tortoise, monitor lizard, wild boar and the common brown monkey are consumed with much relish. The Veddhas kill only for food and do not harm young or pregnant animals. Game is commonly shared amongst the family and clan. Fish are caught by employing fish poisons such as the juice of the pus-vel (Entada scandens) and daluk-kiri (Cactus milk). Veddha culinary fare is also deserving of mention. Amongst the best known are gona perume, which is a sort of sausage containing alternate layers of meat and fat, and goya-tel-perume, which is the tail of the monitor lizard (talagoya), stuffed with fat obtained from its sides and roasted in embers. Another Veddha delicacy is dried meat preserve soaked in honey. In the olden days, the Veddhas used to preserve such meat in the hollow of a tree, enclosing it with clay.
Such succulent meat served as a ready food supply in times of scarcity. The early part of the year (January-February) is considered to be the season of yams and mid-year (June-July) that of fruit and honey, while hunting is availed of throughout the year. Nowadays, more and more Veddha folk have taken to Chena (slash and burn) cultivation. Kurakkan (Eleusine coracana) is cultivated very often. Maize, yams, gourds and melons are also cultivated. In the olden days, the dwellings of the Veddhas consisted of caves and rock shelters. Today, they live in unpretentious huts of wattle, daub and thatch.
[edit] Place in History
In the reign of King Datusena (6th century A.D.) the Mahaweli ganga was diverted at Minipe in the Minipe canal nearly 47 miles long said to be constructed with help from the Yakkas. The Mahawamsa refers to the canal as Yaka-bendi-ela. When the Ruwanweli Seya was built in King Dutugemunu's time (2nd century B.C.) the Veddas procured the necessary minerals from the jungles.
King Parakrama Bahu the great of (12 century) in his war against the rebels employed these Veddas as scouts.
In the reign of King Rajasinghe II (17 century A.D.) in his battle with the Dutch he had a Vedda regiment. In the abortive Uva-Welessa revolt of 1817-1818 of the British times, led by Keppetipola Dissawe, the Veddas too fought with the rebels against the British forces.
[edit] Linguistics
Main article Wanniyala Aetto language
Their language, usually referred to as Veddah, is closely related to Sinhala, although much of its vocabulary (especially terms associated with the forest and their lifestyle) can not be traced to Sinhala and may be from a language(s) spoken before the adoption of the Sinhalese language.
Examples include the Wanniyala-Aetto word ruhang for friend, while the Sinhala word is yaluva (IPA /jaːluaː/). There are also communities of Wanniyala-Aetto who speak Tamil in the east coast (Vetas).
[edit] Current status
Some observers have said Veddas are disappearing and have lamented the decline of their distinct culture.[7] Development, government forest reserve restrictions, and the civil war have disrupted traditional Vedda ways of life.
However, cultural assimilation of Veddas with other local populations has been going on for a long time. "Vedda" has been used in Sri Lanka to mean not only hunter-gatherers or people who have an aboriginal ancestry, but also to refer to any people who adopt an unsettled and rural way of life and can be a derogatory term based on the contet. Thus, over time, it is possible for non-Vedda groups to become Veddas, in this broad cultural sense.[8][9] Vedda populations of this kind are increasing in some districts.[10]
Today many Sinhalese people and some east coastal Tamils claim that they have some trace of Veddah blood. Intermarriage between Veddas and Sinhalese is very frequent. They are not considered outcasts in Sri Lankan society unlike the untouchable caste called Rodiyas (see Caste in Sri Lanka).
The current leader of the Wanniyala-Aetto community is Uru Warige Wanniya.
@ WWW Virtual Library Sri Lanka
Veddas - now only a household name
(@Script & Photos: Gamini G. Punchihewa/The Island)
The Veddas, our aborigines are almost now extinct. According to anthropoligists, Dr. Seligman and his wife, Brenda who researched our aborigines in 1910 the Veddas descended from the Australoid, Negrod Indian races as described in their book, 'The Veddas' (1910).
Later our famed 'Surgeon and author about the Wilderness', Dr. R. L. Spittel at the turn of the century studied the Veddas in their original settlements and wrote many books on these aborigines, among them 'Wild Ceylon' (1925), 'Far Off Things' (1930), 'Vanished Trails', 'Savage Sanctuary'(1939/45) the last being the epic life story of Wannaku Tissahamy, the jungle outlaw.
Prior to the coming of Prince Vijaya and his 700 followers, Lanka as it was then called was inhabited by two fierce tribes, the Nagas (cobra worshippers), Yakkas (demon worshippers). The former confined to the coastal belt while the latter to interior of the jungles.
Chieftain Kalu Appu and Thappal Bandiya of Henanigala Veddha re-settlement
Vijaya married Kuweni, a beautiful daughter of a Yakka chieftain. When he took a consort from India, he deserted Kuweni and her two children. Her tribe in wrath killed her while the two children took asylum in the Peak Wilderness (Sri Pada Adaviya). Kuweni's descendants were called the Pulindas who according to legend are the descendants of the present day Veddas.
Another tradition states that the Veddas' ancestors were the Yakkas. The Mahavamsa records that King Pandukabhaya (5th century BC) built shrines dedicated to 'vyaadha deva', the god of the hunters.
The word Vedda is derived from sanskrit Vyaddha — meaning one who lives by chase, thus meaning a hunter. The Vedda language itself is a mixture of Pali, Sanskrit and Elu, a form of archaic Sinhala. In the 6th century BC King Panduvasdeva and his retinue arrived in Lanka, and were welcomed by Yakka tribes who showed them the way to Vijithapura.
Sabaragamuwa means the land of jungle tribes (Sabara means primitive people), hence it is said in some traditions that the Vedda habitat once upon a time existed in Sabaragamuwa. With places like Veddagala, Veddacombe, Veddawala (lying close to Kalawana) and Pothupitiya.
Coming to the reign of Pandukabhaya (5th century BC) he fought his seven embittered uncles with the support of the Yakka chieftain and his tribe.
In the reign of King Datusena (6th century A.D.) the Mahaweli ganga was diverted at Minipe in the Minipe canal nearly 47 miles long said to be constructed with help from the Yakkas. The Mahawamsa refers to the canal as Yaka-bendi-ela. When the Ruwanweli Seya was built in King Dutugemunu's time (2nd century B.C.) the Veddas procured the necessary minerals from the jungles.
King Parakrama Bahu the great of (12 century) in his war against the rebels employed these Veddas as scouts.
In the reign of King Rajasinghe II (17 century A.D.) in his battle with the Dutch he had a Vedda regiment. In the abortive Uva-Welessa revolt of 1817-1818 of the British times, led by Keppetipola Dissawe, the Veddas too fought with the rebels against the British forces.
Dr. Seligmann classifies the Veddas into three groups.— the Gal Veddas (Rock Veddas) who dwelt in caves-hunting animals with bow and arrow and lived a food gathering existence, Gam Veddas (Village Veddas) those who intermarried with the neighbouring Sinhalese and cultivated chena and other food crops with the Coastal Veddas (Mudu Veddas) were confined mostly to the eastern coastal belt, like Kalkuda.
Today no Rock Veddas exist, instead a few Gam Veddas are still confined to the aboriginal settlements like Pollebedda (Maha Oya), Rahtugala (off Bibile and Gal Oya Valley), Dambana (off Mahiyangane).
Inroads of Civilization
With the damming of the Gal Oya river (lying in the eastern province and Uva) in 1950 and the creation of the Senanayake Samudraya well known Vedda settlements like Hennebedda, Gallobe, vanished. Other vedda settlements were submerged and they were then called 'tankbed people'. Some of them were re-settled in new settlement under the Gal Oya scheme, like Paragahakelle and Wavinna (first village units to be created in 1950/52), while the rest opted to seek other pastures like Pollebedda, Bandaraduwa and even in Namal Oya.
The Mahaweli Accelerated Development Programme in the 1980's extended into the Bintenna called in ancient times, as Maha Vedirata and Mahiyangana, Maduru Oya, Yakhura, Dimbulagala regions. Consequently the few remaining shoots were either wiped out, or integrated into the Mahaweli settlement in Systems B and C.
Among the other traditional Vedda settlements is the Dambana which lies between the Mahaweli Ganga and Maduru Oya.
Dr. Seligmann who had studied almost all the aboriginal settlements in 1910, like Danigala, Hennebedda, Yakhura, Nilgala, Sorabora had also visited Dambana.
A few Vedda settlements around Mahaweli systems, like Keragoda, Kotabakina, Koteya and Kende Ganwila were displaced. Most of those age old aboriginal settlements got engulfed in the newly created Maduru Oya National Park (in 1983) and eventually were displaced. Those Vedda evacuees about 113 were re-settled in an exclusively carved out settlement at Hennanigala lying off Mahaweli System C, in Giriandurukotte, about 15 miles away from Mahiyangane.
Most of them accepted the new life style but chieftain of Dambana-Uruwarige Tissahamy and a few others refused to discard their Vedda trappings and sought refuge in the sanctuary of the Maduru Oya National Park.
The Veddas believed in the cult of their dead whom they propitiated rituals and dances to invoke their blessings. When death stalked their cave homes, they abandoned them and went in quest of other caves.
They believed in Nae Yakka (after death-the spirit of the dead relative haunted them). To appease the Nae Yakka they did a ritual accompanied with dance and song called Kirikoraha which these Gam Veddas still indulge in. Their other spirits were Kande Yakka, Bilinda Yakka, Rahu Yakka, Kiri Amma, etc.,
The two Vedda patriarchs Hennanigala re-settlement are Kalu Appu (the chieftain) and Tappal Bandiya. They and a few other elders did not fit with the new self-style in their new settlements as they had no jungle to hunt or collect bee's honey. Each of these evacuees were given 1/2 acre of highland, a 2 acre irrigable plot at Henanigala in System C, off Girandurukotte.
@ WWW Virtual Library Sri Lanka
Chieftain Kalu Appu and Thappal Bandiya with their families.
Secret Hinduism in middle-east still surviving from ancient times -
Secret Hinduism in middle-east still surviving from ancient times. This is the Yazidi or Yezidi religion among few Kurds the descendents of ancient Indian Immigrant settlers called also the Hurrians (Mittani and Hittites). Unfortunately sometimes mistaken as devil-worship due to their secret nature for survival. Their holy places the exact lookalike of hindu temples tells the tale. However many other influences have distorted it to such an extent that it could be best called a syncretism of Islam and Christianity with Hindu/Vedic roots.
Yazidi
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Myths of the Fertile Crescent
series
Mesopotamian mythology
Ancient Arabian mythology
Ancient Levantine mythology
Names of God in the Hebrew Bible
Mesopotamian religion
Yezidic religion
Pre-Islamic Arabian gods
* Ēl, Ilāh "God"
* Bēl, Baʕl, Bēl-Šamīn
* Aglibol
* al-Lāt, al-'Ilāhat
* Astarte
* Atargatis (Syrian)
* Ištar, Athtar
* Beltis?
* Bes (Egypto-Arabic)
* Manāt
* Manaf
* Nergal
* Nabū, Nebo
* Orotalt
* Qawm
* Sīn, Nanna-Suen
* Shams, Samas
* ʕUzzā
* Wadd
* Yaghūth
* Yarhibol/Malakbel
* astral & local deities
* demons
edit
The Yazidi or Yezidi (Kurdish: Êzidîtî or Êzidî) are adherents of a small Middle Eastern religious sect with ancient origins. Yazidi belong to the minor of the three branches of Yazdânism. The other branches of Yazdânism, Alevism and Yarsanism, differ from Yazidism by recognizing Islamic taqiyya (dissimulation). The three branches are geographically split and mutual contacts are rare.
Yazidis are primarily ethnic Kurds, and most live near Mosul, Iraq with smaller communities in Syria, Turkey, Iran, Georgia and Armenia, and number around 500,000 individuals in total, but estimates vary on their population size, partially due to the Yazidi tradition of secretiveness when asked about one's confession. Yazidi refugees also live in Europe.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Origins
* 2 Religious beliefs
* 3 Organization
* 4 Religious practices
o 4.1 Prayers
o 4.2 Pilgrimage
o 4.3 Festivals
o 4.4 Purity and taboos
o 4.5 Customs
o 4.6 Myths
* 5 Recent history
* 6 Views of outsiders, fiction and stereotypes
* 7 Academic texts about Yazidis
* 8 Reference
* 9 External links
[edit] Origins
The origins of Yazidism are ultimately shrouded in Middle Eastern prehistory. Although the Yazidis speak Kurdish, their religion shows strong influence from archaic Levantine and Islamic religions. Their principal holy site is in Mosul, Iraq. The Yazidis own name for themselves is Êzidî or Êzîdî or, in some areas, Dasinî (the last, strictly speaking, a tribal name). Some scholars have derived the name Yazidi from Old Iranic yazata (divine being), while others say it is a derivation from Umayyad Caliph Yazid I (Yazid bin Muawiyah), revered by the Yazidis as an incarnation of the divine figure Sultan Ezi (this is no longer widely accepted). Yazidis, themselves, believe that their name is derived from the word Yezdan or Êzid meaning God; however in ancient vernaculars of Kurdistan such as Urartian the term 'izid-u' (vb.) means 'command' or 'admonish'. The Yazidis' cultural practices are observably Kurdish, and almost all speak Kurmanjî (Northern Kurdish), with the exception of the villages of Baiqa and Bahazane in Northern Iraq, where Arabic is spoken. Kurmanjî is the language of almost all the orally transmitted religious traditions of the Yazidis. Thus, religious origins are somewhat complex.
The religion of the Yazidis is a highly syncretistic one: Sufi influence and imagery can be seen in their religious vocabulary, especially in the terminology of their esoteric literature, but much of the mythology is non-Islamic, and their cosmogonies apparently have many points in common with those of ancient Iranic religions. Early writers attempted to describe Yazidi origins, broadly speaking, in terms of Islam, or Iranic, or sometimes even pagan religions; however, publications since the 1990s have shown such an approach to be over-simplistic.[1]
The origin of the Yazidi religion is now usually seen by scholars as a complex process of syncretism, whereby the belief-system and practices of a local faith had a profound influence on the religiosity of adherents of the Adawiyya sufi order living in the Kurdish mountains, and caused it to deviate from Islamic norms relatively soon after the death of its founder, Sheikh Adî ibn Mustafa who is said to be of Umayyad descent. He settled in the valley of Laliş (some thirty-six miles north-east of Mosul) in the early 12th century CE. Shaeikh Adî himself, a figure of undoubted orthodoxy, enjoyed widespread influence. He died in 1162, and his tomb at Lalish is a focal point of Yazidi pilgrimage. During the fourteenth century, important Kurdish tribes whose sphere of influence stretched well into what is now Turkey (including, for a period, the rulers of the principality of Jazira) are cited in historical sources as Yazidi.
[edit] Religious beliefs
Malak Ta'us, the peacock angel
Malak Ta'us, the peacock angel
In the Yazidi worldview, God created the world, which is now in the care of a Heptad of seven Holy Beings, often known as Angels or heft sirr (the Seven Mysteries). Pre-eminent among these is Melek Taus (Tawûsê Melek in Kurdish), the Peacock Angel, who is equated with Satan or Devil by some Muslims and Christians. "The reason for the Yazidis reputation of being devil worshipers, is connected to the other name of Melek Taus, Shaytan, the same name as the Koran's for Satan."[2] However, according to the Kurdish linguist Jamal Nebez, the word Taus is most probably derived from the Greek and is related to the words Zeus and Theos, alluding to the meaning of God. Accordingly, Malak Ta'us is God's Angel, and this is how Yezidis themselves see Melek Taus or Taus-e-Malak ([3], page 21).
Yazidis believe that Melek Ta'us is not a source of evil or wickedness. They consider him as the leader of the archangels, not a fallen angel. Also they say that the source of evil is in the heart and spirit of humans themselves, not in Melek Ta'us. The active forces in their religion are Melek Ta'us and Sheik Adii. The Kitêba Cilwe (Book of Illumination) which claims to be the words of Melek Ta'us, and which presumably represents Yazidi belief, states that he allocates responsibilities, blessings and misfortunes as he sees fit and that it is not for the race of Adam to question him. Sheikh Adii believed that the spirit of Melek Ta'us is the same as his own, perhaps as a re-incarnation. He is believed to have said : "I was present when Adam was living in Paradise, and also when Nemrud threw Abraham in fire. I was present when God said to me: (You are the ruler and Lord on the Earth). God, the compassionate, gave me seven earths and throne of the heaven."
Yazidi accounts of creation differ from that of Christianity and Islam. They believe that God first created Melek Ta'us from his own illumination (Ronahî in the Kurdish) and the other seven archangels were created later on. God ordered Melek Ta'us not to bow to other beings. Then God created the other archangels and ordered them to bring him dust (Ax) from the Earth (Erd) and build the body of Adam. Then God gave life to Adam from his own breath and instructed all archangels to bow to Adam. All archangels obeyed except Melek Ta'us. As God inquired, Malak Ta'us replied, "How can I submit to another being! I am from your illumination while Adam is made of dust." Then God praised him and made him the leader of all angels and his deputy on the Earth. Hence the Yazidis believe that Melek Ta'us is the representative of God on the face of the Earth, and comes down to the Earth on the first Wednesday of Nisan (March/April). Yezidis celebrate this day as the New Year's day. God created Melek Ta'us from his illumination (Ronahî ) on this day. Yazidis argue that the order to bow to Adam was only a test for Melek Ta'us, since if God says something then it happens (Bibe, dibe). In other words, God could have made him submit to Adam, but gave Ta'us the choice as a test. They believe that their respect and praise for Melek Ta'us is a way to acknowledge his majestic and sublime nature. This idea is called "Knowledge of the Sublime" (Zanista Ciwaniyê ). Sheikh Adii has observed the story of Melek Ta'us and believed in him.[4]
One of the key creationism beliefs of Yazidism is that all Yazidis are descendants of Adam rather than Eve.
Yazidis believe that good and evil both exist in the mind and spirit of human beings. It depends on the humans, themselves, which one they choose. In this process, their devotion to Melek Ta'us is essential, since it was he who was given the same choice between good and evil by God, and chose the good.
Yazidis, which have much in common with those of the Ahl-e Haqq (in western Iran), state that the world created by God was at first a pearl. It remained in this very small and enclosed state for some time (often a magic number such as forty or forty thousand years) before being remade in its current state. During this period the Heptad were called into existence, God made a covenant with them and entrusted the world to them. Besides Melek Ta'us, members of the Heptad (the Seven), who were called into existence by God at the beginning of all things, include Sheikh Adii Ibn Mustafa, his companion Shaikh Hasan, and a group known as the four Mysteries, Shamsadin, Fakhradin, Sajadin and Naserdin. The Yazidi holy books are the Kitêba Cilwe (Book of Revelation) and the Mishefa Reş (Black Book).
Two key and interrelated features of Yazidism are: a) a preoccupation with religious purity and b) a belief in metempsychosis. The first of these is expressed in the system of caste, the food laws, the traditional preferences for living in Yazidi communities, and the variety of taboos governing many aspects of life. The second is crucial; Yazidis traditionally believe that the Seven Holy Beings are periodically reincarnated in human form, called a koasasa.
A belief in the reincarnation of lesser Yazidi souls also exists. Like the Ahl-e Haqq, the Yazidis use the metaphor of a change of garment to describe the process, which they call kiras guhorîn in Kurdish (changing the garment). Alongside this, Yazidi mythology also includes descriptions of heaven and hell, and other traditions incorporating these ideas into a belief-system that includes reincarnation.
[edit] Organization
Yazidi society is hierarchical. The secular leader is a hereditary emir or prince, whereas a chief sheikh heads the religious hierarchy. The Yazidi are strictly endogamous. In addition, members of the three Yazidi castes, the murids, sheikhs and pirs, marry only within their group.
[edit] Religious practices
[edit] Prayers
Yazidis have five daily prayers: Nivêja berîspêdê (Dawn Prayer), Nivêja rojhilatinê (Sunrise Prayer), Nivêja nîvro (Noon Prayer), Nivêja êvarî (Afternoon Prayer), Nivêja rojavabûnê (Sunset Prayer) [5]. The worshipers should turn their face toward the sun, and for the noon prayer, they should face toward Laliş. Such prayer should be accompanied by certain gestures, including kissing the rounded neck (gerîvan) of the sacred shirt (kiras). The daily prayer services must not be performed in the presence of outsiders, and are always performed in the direction of the sun. Wednesday is the holy day but Saturday is the day of rest. There is also a three-day feast in December.
[edit] Pilgrimage
tomb of sheik Adi in Lalish
Enlarge
tomb of sheik Adi in Lalish
The most important ritual is the annual six-day pilgrimage to the tomb of Sheikh Adi in Lalish, north of Mosul, Iraq. A sacred microcosm of the world, as it were, it contains not only many shrines dedicated to the koasasa, but a number of other landmarks corresponding to other sites or symbols of significance in other faiths, including Pirra selat (Serat Bridge) and a mountain called Mt. Arafat. The two sacred springs are called Zamzam and Kaniya sipî (The White Spring). If possible, Yazidis make at least one pilgrimage to Lalish during their lifetime, and those living in the region try to attend at least once a year for the autumn Feast of the Assembly which is celebrated from 23rd of Elul to 1st of Tishrei (September). During the celebration, Yazidi bathe in the river, wash figures of Malak Ta'us and light hundreds of lamps in the tombs of Sheikh Adii and other saints. They also sacrifice an ox, which is one reason they have been connected to Mithraism, in addition to the presence of the dog and serpent in their iconography. The sacrifice of the ox is meant to declare the arrival of Fall and to ask for precipitation during winter in order to bring back life to the Earth in the next Spring. Moreover, in astrology, the ox is the symbol of Tishrei.
[edit] Festivals
The Yazidi New Year falls in Spring (somewhat later than Equinox). There is some lamentation by women in the cemeteries, to the accompaniment of the music of the Qewals, but the festival is generally characterized by joyous events: the music of dehol (drum) and zorna (shawm), communal dancing and meals, the decorating of eggs. Similarly the village Tawaf, a festival held in the spring in honor of the patron of the local shrine, has secular music, dance and meals in addition to the performance of sacred music. Another important festival is the Tawusgeran (circulation of the peacock) where Qewals and other religious dignitaries visit Yazidi villages, bringing the senjaq, sacred images representing the peacock and associated with Malak Ta'us. These are venerated, taxes are collected from the pious, sermons are preached, and holy water distributed. The greatest festival of the year for ordinary Yazidis is the Cejna Cemaiya (Feast of the Assembly) at Lalish, a seven-day occasion. A focus of widespread pilgrimage, this is an important time for social contact and affirmation of identity. The religious center of the event is the belief in an annual gathering of the Heptad in the holy place at this time. Rituals practiced include the sacrifice of a bull at the shrine of Shaikh Shams and the practice of sema.
[edit] Purity and taboos
The Yazidis' concern with religious purity, and their reluctance to mix elements perceived to be incompatible, is shown not only in their caste system, but also in various taboos affecting everyday life. Some of these, such as those on exogamy or on insulting or offending men of religion, are widely respected. Others, such as the prohibition of eating lettuce or wearing the color blue, are often ignored when men of religion are not present. Others still are less widely known and may be localized. The purity of the four elements, Earth, Air, Fire, and Water, is protected by a number of taboos–against spitting on earth, water, or fire, for instance. These may reflect ancient Iranian preoccupations, as apparently do the taboos concerning bodily refuse, hair, and menstrual blood. Too much contact with non-Yazidis is also polluting. In the past Yazidis avoided military service which would have led them to live among Muslims, and were forbidden to share such items as cups or razors with outsiders. Auditory resemblance may lie behind the taboo against eating lettuce, whose name koas resembles Kurdish pronunciations of koasasa.
[edit] Customs
Yazidi are dominantly monogamous but chiefs may have more than one wife. Children are baptized at birth and circumcision is common but not required. Dead are buried in conical tombs immediately after death and buried with hands crossed.
Yazidi are exclusive; clans do not intermarry even with other Kurds and accept no converts. They claim that they are descended only from Adam. The strongest punishment is expulsion, which is also effectively excommunication because the soul of the exiled is forfeit.
As a demiurge figure, Malak Ta'us is often identified by orthodox Muslims as a Shaitan, a Muslim term denoting a devil or demon who deceives true believers. In Islam, a common deception by shaytan is to assign partners to Allah. Thus, the Yazidi have been accused of devil worship. Because of this and due to their pre-Islamic beliefs, they have been oppressed by their Muslim neighbors. Such oppression of Yezidis was exceptionally harsh during the rule of the Ottoman Empire.
[edit] Myths
The tale of the Yazidis' origin found in the Black Book gives them a distinctive ancestry and expresses their feeling of difference from other races. Before the roles of the sexes were determined, Adam and Eve quarreled about which of them provided the creative element in the begetting of children. Each stored their seed in a jar which was then sealed. When Eve's was opened it was full of insects and other unpleasant creatures, but inside Adam's jar was a beautiful boy-child. This lovely child, known as son of Jar grew up to marry a houri and became the ancestor of the Yazidis. Therefore, the Yazidi are regarded as decending from Adam alone, while other humans are descendants of both Adam and Eve.
[edit] Recent history
It is alleged by some that during the regime of Saddam Hussein, Yazidis were considered to be Arabs and maneuvered to oppose the Kurds, in order to tilt the ethnic balance in northern Iraq, but this cannot be entirely substantiated. It is known, however, that the Yazidi's unique identity, despite being ethnically Kurdish, was in fact used by the Baathist regime to isolate one from the other. However, both groups fought against Baathist troops, often in joint Peshmerga units. Since the 2003 occupation of Iraq, the Kurds want the Yazidi to be recognized as ethnic Kurds to increase their numbers and influence.
The Chermera temple (meaning "40 Men" in the Yezidi dialect) on the highest peak on the Sinjar mountains in northern Iraq. The temple is so old that no one remembers how it came to have that name but it is believed to derive from the burial of 40 men on the mountain-top site. Picture taken by an American Soldier from the 334th Signal Company, 3rd Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, April 2004.
Enlarge
The Chermera temple (meaning "40 Men" in the Yezidi dialect) on the highest peak on the Sinjar mountains in northern Iraq. The temple is so old that no one remembers how it came to have that name but it is believed to derive from the burial of 40 men on the mountain-top site. Picture taken by an American Soldier from the 334th Signal Company, 3rd Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, April 2004.
Historically, the Yazidis are a religious minority of the Kurds. Purportedly, they have existed since 2000 BCE. Estimates of the number of Yazidis vary between 100,000 and 800,000, the latter being the claim of their website. According to the same site, Yazidi refugees in Germany number 30,000.
Feleknas Uca, a Kurdish Member of the European Parliament for Germany's Party of Democratic Socialism was the world's only Yazidi parliamentarian until the Iraqi legislature was elected in 2005.
In her memoir of her service in an intelligence unit of the U.S. Army's 101st Airborne Division in Iraq during 2003 and 2004, Kayla Williams (2005) records being stationed in northern Iraq near the Syrian border in an area inhabited by "Yezidis". The Yezidis were Kurdish-speaking, but did not consider themselves Kurds, and expressed to Williams a fondness for America and Israel. She was able to learn only a little about the nature of their religion: she thought it very ancient, and concerned with angels. She describes a mountain-top Yezidi shrine as "a small rock building with objects dangling from the ceiling", and alcoves for the placement of offerings. She reports that local Muslims considered the Yezidis to be devil worshippers.
It has been claimed [citation needed] the Chermera temple shrine is tied to the resurrection of Jesus Christ. They believe God sent Azaziel or Al-Malek Al-Tawwus, known as the Peacock angel as well as chief of all angels, to move the stone that blocked Christ's grave and that the angel stayed at the site of the temple.
[edit] Views of outsiders, fiction and stereotypes
As the Yazidi hold religious beliefs that are mostly unfamiliar to outsiders, many non-Yazidi people have written about them and ascribed facts to their beliefs that have dubious historical validity. For example, horror writer H. P. Lovecraft made a reference to "... the Yezidi clan of devil-worshippers" in his short story "The Horror at Red Hook".
A fictional Yazidi character of note is the super-powered police officer "King Peacock", of the Top 10 series (and related comics). He is portrayed as a kind, peaceful, character with a broad knowledge of religion and mythology. He is depicted as conservative, ethical and highly principled in family life. An incredibly powerful martial artist, he is able to destroy matter, a power that he claims is derived from communicating with Malak Ta'us.
The Yazidis, perhaps because of their secrecy, also have a place in modern occultism. G. I. Gurdjieff mentions Yazidis several times in his books Meetings with Remarkable Men and Beelzebub's Tales to his Grandson.
This is a view from Secret Doctrine-II by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky:
Yezidis (Arabic) [possibly from Persian yazdan god; or the 2nd Omayyad Caliph, Yezid (720-4); or Persian city Yezd] A sect dwelling principally in Kurdistan, Armenia, and the Caucasus, who call themselves Dasni. Their religious beliefs take on the characteristics of their surrounding peoples, inasmuch as, openly or publicly, they regard Mohammed as a prophet, and Jesus Christ as an angel in human form. Points of resemblance are found with ancient Zoroastrian and Assyrian religion. The principal feature of their worship, however, is Satan under the name of Muluk-Taus. However, it is not the Christian Satan, nor the devil in any form; their Muluk-Taus is the hundred- or thousand-eyed cosmic wisdom, pictured as a bird." (the peacock)
Yazidism has also been claimed as an influence on Aleister Crowley's Thelema. In addition, The Order of the Peacock Angel, an obscure secret society based in the London suburb of Putney loosely based its rites on Yazidi beliefs as well.
In Wanted! God, Dead or Alive, an essay in The Book of Lucifer, the second volume in The Satanic Bible, Anton LaVey refers to the Yazidi as "a sect of Devil worshippers", and interprets their beliefs as follows:
They believe that God is all-powerful, but also all-forgiving, and so accordingly feel that it is the Devil whom they must please, as he is the one who rules their lives while here on earth.
--- On Sun, 8/9/09, bhagavaandaas tyaagi <bhagavaandaas@yahoo.ca> wrote:
From: bhagavaandaas tyaagi <bhagavaandaas@yahoo.ca>
Subject: 135 . HOW OLD IS Hinduu Religion [ हिन्दू-धर्म ] and Hinduu year [ हिन्दु-सम्वत ]
To: bhagavaandaas@yahoo.ca
Date: Sunday, August 9, 2009, 7:31 PM
HOW OLD IS Hinduu Religion [ हिन्दू-धर्म ] and Hinduu year [ हिन्दू-सम्वत ]
Please e-mail to other people, make copies and distribute. AND SEND YOUR COMMENTS-----
Written on January 1, 2003
HINDUU-DHARM = HUMAN-DHARM = HUMANISM = VEDIC-DHARM = SANAATAN-DHARM
According to kaal [ काल ] chapter of bhaagavat puraan[ भागवत-पुराण]:--
Hinduu Religion [ हिन्दू-धर्म ] and Hinduu year [ हिन्दु-सम्वत ] are ---------as old as the human race
WHILE OTHER RELIGIONS ARE :-------
JEWISM , ZOROASTRIANISM, TAOISM , SHINTOISM -----------------5 THOUSAND YEARS
JAINISM , BUDDHISM----------------------------------------------------------- 2 . 5 THOUSAND YEARS
CHRISTIANITY-----------------------------------------------------------------------2 . 0 THOUSAND YEARS
ISLAAM------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 4 HUNDRED YEARS
SIKHISM----------------------------------------------------------------------------------3 HUNDRED YEARS OLD
JEWISM , ZOROASTRIANISM, TAOISM , SHINTOISM , JAINISM , BUDDHISM , CHRISTIANITY , ISLAAM , SIKHISM ETC. ETC. ARE RELIGIONS OF KALI YUG [ कलि-युग ] WHICH IS ABOUT 5 THOUSAND YEARS OLD NOT HINDUU RELIGION . THOSE PEOPLE WHO SAY ---- HINDUU RELIGION IS 5 THOUSAND YEARS OLD ARE MISS - GUIDERS
Hinduu Religion is the oldest religion of the world.
Hinduu Religion is the ancestral religion of everyone.
Hinduu Religion is ABOUT 218, 146,613,003 years old. Calculations are as follows:---
According to the KAAL [ काल ] chapter of the bhaagavat Puraan [ भागवत-पुराण] , we are in
50th Kalp's [ कल्प के] 7 th manvantr's [ मन्वन्तर के ] Kali Yug.
1000 Mahaa Yugs [ महा-युग ] make 1 Kalp.
71 Mahaa Yugs make 1 Manvantr.
4 yugs make 1 mahaa yug ; --- 4 yugs are:----
1. Sat Yug [ सत-युग ] = 1,728,000 yrs-------- with Durgaa and Narsingh Avtaar [ दुर्गा-अवतार नरसिंह-अवतार ]
2. Tretaa Yug त्रेता-युग = 1,296,000 yrs---- with Parashu-raam [ परशु-राम ]and Raam Avtaar[ राम-अवतार ]
3. Dvaapar Yug द्वापर-युग = 864,000 yrs---------- with Balaraam [बलराम ]and Krishn Avtaar [ कृश्ण-अवतार ]
4. Kali Yug [ कलि-युग ] = 432,000 yrs--------- Kalki Avtaar [ कल्कि-अवतार ] will come
______________
**** All four Yugs = 4,320,000 yrs ------- [sat+tretaa+dvaapar+kali yugs] = 1 Mahaa Yugs [ महा-युग ]
1000 Mahaa Yugs [ महा-युग ] = 1 Kalp [ कल्प ] = 1000 x 4320000 = 4,320,000,000 yrs
50 Kalps [ कल्प ] = 50 x 4,320,000,000 = 216,000,000,000 yrs
71 Mahaa Yugs [ महा-युग ] = 1 Manvantr = 71 x 4320,000 = 306,720,000 yrs
7 Manvantrs [ मन्वन्तर ] = 7 x 306720000 = 2,147,040,000 yrs
ABOUT
5003 years of the Kali Yug [ कलि-युग] are gone , leaves 432,000 -- 5,003 = 426,997 yrs
We are in the 50th Kalp's 7th Manvantr's Kali Yug
Hinduu religion or Hinduu years is:----
50 Kalps + 7 Manvantrs -- remaining Kali Yug's years =
216,000,000,000 + 2,147,040,000 -- 426,997 years = 218,146,613,003 years old.
Hinduu religion and Hinduu year [ हिन्दु-सम्वत] are 218,146,613,003 years old . ALMOST AS OLD AS HUMAN RACE
Or We Can say that Hinduu religion is more than 218 billion years old and Hinduu year is also more than 218 billion years old .
When Hinduu religion or Hindu years is ABOUT--- 218,146,613,003 years old
Christianity would be ABOUT ------------- 2,003 years old
When Hinduu religion or Hinduu years is ABOUT -- 218,146,613,004 years old
Christianity would be ABOUT -------------- 2,004 years old
When Hinduu religion or Hindu years is ------------ 218,146,613,006 years old
Christianity would be ABOUT ------------ 2,006 years old and so on
according to christian---scientists world is 11 to 12 billion years old . according to Hinduu scientists [ Hinduu
rishis ऋशि ] world is more than 218 billion years old.
why do we believe christian---scientists and not Hinduu---scientists ऋशि ? is it not a shame on Hinduus because they believe christian- scientists and not Hinduu -scientists [ Hinduu rishis ऋशि ] ?
Unfortunately, westernized Indians[ HINDUUDS ] have the tendency to recognize our great
people , our great scientists [ our rishis ऋशि ] , our heroes , our religion's age , our year's age etc. etc. only when there is a stamp of approval of the Western world. ---- A true sign of slavery of Indians [ HINDUUS ] .They will believe christian-scientists and not Hinduu scientists [ Hinduu rishis ऋशि ].
HINDUUS !!! START BELIEVING IN YOUR SELF , YOUR OWEN LANGUAGE , YOUR OWEN RELIGION ,
YOUR OWEN CULTURE , YOUR OWEN HERITAGE , YOUR OWEN GREAT PEOPLE , YOUR OWEN
SCIENTISTS { RISHIS AND MUNIS ऋशि मुनि } AND STOP COPING THE WEST . STOP APING THE WEST.
BE YOUR SELF !!! BE YOUR SELF !!! BE YOUR SELF !!!
Buddhism is 2500 year old--------it means before 2500 years ago there was no Buddhist people and there was no Buddhist- country on this earth. from 1 Buddh in 2500 years Buddhists became from 0 to more than 1 billion and Buddhist took 1/4 of the world from non Buddhists-------
Christianity is 2003 years old-----------------Islam is about 1400 years old ---------------it means before 2003 years there was no christian on this earth and there was no christian--country on this earth. from 1 Christ in 2003 years christian became from 0 to more than 1 billion and they took 1/4 of the world from non-Christians. -----------
about 1400 years ago there was no Muslim on this earth and there was no Islamic--country on this earth . from 1 Muhammad in about 1400 years Muslim became from 0 to more than 1 billion and they took 1/4 of the world from non-Muslims---------
a few hundred years ago there was no communism----- in a few hundred years communists took 1/4 of the world from non - communists------------
HINDUUS ARE ALSO 1 BILLION AND HAS NO HINDUU - COUNTRY.WHOLE WORLD IS TAKEN AWAY FROM HINDUUS BY BUDDHISTS , CHRISTIANS , MUSLIMS , COMMUNISTS ETC. ETC.---------
HINDUUS !! THINK ABOUT THIS !!! THINK ABOUT CONVERSION !!! IF 1 HINDUU BECOMES BUDDH ; IN ABOUT 2500 YEARS HE WOULD BE NUMBERED MORE THAN 1 BILLION . IF 1 HINDUU BECOMES A CHRISTIAN; IN ABOUT 2003 YEARS HE WOULD BE NUMBERED MORE THAN 1 BILLION . IN THE SAME WAY IF 1 HINDUU BECOMES A MUSLIM; IN ABOUT 1400 YEARS HE WOULD BE NUMBERED MORE THAN 1 BILLION .
****in India and in the world it is not 1 HINDUU who is converted into Christianity or into Islam but many , many many in one-day . HINDUUS THINK ABOUT THIS AND ACT. ----------------
-in about 2003 years Christians took 1/4 of the world . it would not take too long to take over the whole world by Christians . IF HINDUUS WOULD NOT ACT FAST ENOUGH EFFECTIVELY.
in the same way Muslim in about 1400 years took 1/3 of the world . it would not take too long to take over the whole world by Muslims ; then there would be no Hinduu , and no Hinduu--religion in this world IF HINDUUS WOULD NOT ACT FAST ENOUGH EFFECTIVELY.
.
HINDUUS THINK ABOUT ALL THIS ! SAFE GUARD YOUR SELF ! NOW THERE ARE MANY MANY BUDDHISTS AND COMMUNIST COUNTRIES AND MORE THAN 100 CHRISTIAN--COUNTRIES AND MORE THAN 75 ISLAMIC--COUNTRIES AND THERE IS NO HINDUU--COUNTRY. WHY NOT HINDUU DECLARE INDIA A HINDUU--COUNTRY ? HINDUUS ! WAKE UP ! SAVE YOUR COUNTRY ! DECLARE INDIA A HINDUU--COUNTRY AND STOP CONVERSION . BRING BACK ALL CONVERTS IN THEIR ORIGINAL--RELIGION . BRINGING BACK IS NOT CONVERSION .
****BRINGING BACK IS NOT CONVERSION ****.
AATAM - DAAH [ आत्म-दाह ] AND HUMAN-BOMBS :---Hinduus ! Do not commit aatam--daah [ आत्म-दाह ].By now you should know---------losing one Hinduu by aatam-daah [ आत्म-दाह ] or by convert ion or by any way means loosing BILLIONS AND BILLIONS OF HINDUUS.
************ HINDUUS ! BECOME WISE ! DO NOT LOSE ANY HINDUU BY ANY WAY ***********
AND DO NOT DIVIDE HINDUUS IN---AADI VAASII आदि वासी , MIINAAS मीना .GUJJARS गुज्जर , BRAHMANS ब्राह्मण , KSHATRIY क्षत्रीय , ETC. ETC. WE ARE ALL HINDUUS.
PLEASE NOTE-----------HINDII WORDS ARE WRITTEN IN ENGLISH ACCORDING TO
ONE OF THE HINDII-SANSKRI~T- ENGLISH - GUIDES to write HINDII-SANSKRI~T words in ENGLISH---
अ = a , आ = aa , इ = i , ई = ii , उ = u , ऊ = uu , ऋ = ri~ ( रि = ri , री = rii , ऋ =ri~ )
ए = e , ऐ = ee or ai , ओ = o , औ = oo or au , अं = an , अ: = a: ]
क = k , ख = kh , ग = g , घ = gh ङ =n. ||| च = ch , छ = chh ज = j , झ = jh , ञ = n`
ट = t. , ठ = th. , ड = d. , ढ = dh. , ण = n~||| त = t , थ = th , द = d , ध = dh , न = n
प = p , फ = ph , ब = b , भ = bh , म = m ||| य = y , र = r , ल = l , व = v , श = sh
ष = sh. स = s , ह = h , क्ष = ksh , त्र = tr ||| ज्ञ = jn.. , श्र = shr , ड़ = ad , ढ़ = ad. ] }
PLEASE NOTE :--हिंदी should be Hindii not Hindi which is = हिंदि ||| हिंदू should be Hinduu not Hindu which is = हिंदु-------
हिंदी में त्रुतियां हैं क्यों कि क्मपुटर पर वे शब्द लिखने नहीं आते उस के लिये क्षमा याचना I इस दृश्टा के लिये भी क्षमा याचना |
No comments:
Post a Comment