Indian Holocaust My Father`s Life and Time -Two Hundred Thirty Four
Palash Biswas
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Shylock
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shylock is a fictional character in Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice.
Contents[hide] |
[edit] In the play
In The Merchant of Venice, Shylock is a Jewish moneylender who lends money to his Christian rival, Antonio, setting the bond at a pound of Antonio's flesh. When a bankrupt Antonio defaults on the loan, Shylock demands the pound of flesh, as revenge for Antonio having previously insulted and spat on him. Meanwhile, his daughter, Jessica, elopes with Antonio's friend Lorenzo and becomes a Christian, further fuelling Shylock's rage.
[edit] Historical background
| | This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2008) |
During Shakespeare's day, money lending was one of the popular careers among Jews; Christians also followed Old Testament laws condemning usury charged to fellow Gentiles. Jews were also banned from owning farm land or prevented from entering guilds and therefore this was one of the few professions open to them in Christian society. In the 16th century, Christians regarded usury as a sin. However, Shylock's profession as a moneylender is still frequently used by critics to support claims of anti-Semitism in the play.
Shylock's "Hath not a Jew eyes..." speech, in which he asserts that he is no different than a Christian and deserves revenge as much as they would have it, is one of the most famous monologues in English literature. Some scholars also suggest that Shylock is repeatedly shown to have human qualities and that he becomes a sympathetic character, particularly when he is told about Jessica's betrayal and the loss of his deceased wife's ring.
In the play Shakespeare also makes repeated references to the cruelty Shylock suffers at the hands of Christians.
[edit] Portrayal
[edit] Shylock on stage
Jacob Adler and others report that the tradition of playing Shylock sympathetically began in the first half of the 19th century with Edmund Kean[1], and that previously the role had been played "by a comedian as a repulsive clown or, alternatively, as a monster of unrelieved evil." Kean's Shylock established his reputation as an actor.[2]
From Kean's time forward, all of the actors who have played the role — with the exception of Edwin Booth, who played him as a simple villain — have chosen a sympathetic approach to the character; even Booth's father, Junius Brutus Booth, played the role sympathetically. Henry Irving's portrayal of an aristocratic, proud Shylock (first seen at the Lyceum in 1879, with Portia played by Ellen Terry) has been called "the summit of his career".[3] Jacob Adler was the most notable of the early 20th century, playing the role in Yiddish in an otherwise English-language production.[4]
Kean and Irving presented a Shylock justified in wanting his revenge; Adler's Shylock evolved over the years he played the role, first as a stock Shakespearean villain, then as a man whose better nature was overcome by a desire for revenge, and finally as a man who operated not from revenge but from pride. In a 1902 interview with Theater magazine, Adler pointed out that Shylock is a wealthy man, "rich enough to forgo the interest on three thousand ducats" and that Antonio is "far from the chivalrous gentleman he is made to appear. He has insulted the Jew and spat on him, yet he comes with hypocritical politeness to borrow money of him." Shylock's fatal flaw is to depend on the law, but "would he not walk out of that courtroom head erect, the very apotheosis of defiant hatred and scorn?"[5]
Some modern productions take further pains to show how Shylock's thirst for vengeance has some justification. For instance, in the 2004 film adaptation directed by Michael Radford and starring Al Pacino as Shylock, the film begins with text and a montage of how the Jewish community is abused by the Christian population of the city. One of the last shots of the film also brings attention to the fact that, as a convert, Shylock would have been cast out of the Jewish community in Venice, no longer allowed to live in the ghetto, and would still not be accepted by the Christians, as they would feel that Shylock was yet the Jew he once was.
Arnold Wesker's play The Merchant tells the same story from Shylock's point of view. In this retelling, Shylock and Antonio are friends bound by a mutual love of books and culture and a disdain for the anti-Semitism of the Christian community's laws. They make the bond in defiant mockery of the Christian establishment, never anticipating that the bond might become forfeit. When it does, the play argues, Shylock must carry through on the letter of the law or jeopardize the scant legal security of the entire Jewish community. He is, therefore, quite as grateful as Antonio when Portia, as in Shakespeare's play, shows the legal way out. The play received its American premiere on November 16, 1977 at New York's Plymouth Theatre with Joseph Leon as Shylock, Marian Seldes as Shylock's sister Rivka and Roberta Maxwell as Portia. This production had a challenging history in previews on the road, culminating (after the first night out of town in Philadelphia on September 8 1977) with the death of the Broadway star Zero Mostel, who was initially cast as Shylock. The play's author, Arnold Wesker, wrote a book chronicling the out-of-town tribulations that beset the play and Mostel's death called "The Birth of Shylock and the Death of Zero Mostel."
[edit] Notable portrayals
Notable actors who have portrayed Shylock include Richard Burbage in the 16th century, Charles Macklin in 1741, Edmund Kean in 1814, William Charles Macready in 1840, Edwin Booth in 1861, Henry Irving in 1880, George Arliss in 1928, John Gielgud in 1937, Laurence Olivier at the National Theatre in 1972 and on TV in 1973, Al Pacino in a 2004 feature film version, and F. Murray Abraham at the Royal Shakespeare Company in 2006.
Under Nazi rule in 1943, the Vienna Burgtheater presented a notoriously extreme production of The Merchant of Venice with Werner Krauss as Shylock.
[edit] Shylock and the antisemitism debate
The play is frequently staged today, but is potentially troubling to modern audiences due to its central themes, which can easily appear antisemitic. Critics today still continue to argue over the play's stance on antisemitism.
[edit] The antisemitic reading
English society in the Elizabethan era has been described as antisemitic.[6] English Jews had been expelled in the Middle Ages and were not permitted to return until the rule of Oliver Cromwell. Jews were often presented on the Elizabethan stage in hideous caricature, with hooked noses and bright red wigs, and were usually depicted as avaricious usurers; an example is Christopher Marlowe's play The Jew of Malta, which features a comically wicked Jewish villain called Barabas. They were usually characterized as evil, deceptive, and greedy.
During the 1600s in Venice and in some other places, Jews were required to wear a red hat at all times in public to make sure that they were easily identified. If they did not comply with this rule they could face the death penalty. Jews also had to live in a ghetto protected by Christians, supposedly for their own safety. The Jews were expected to pay their guards. [7]
Readers may see Shakespeare's play as a continuation of this antisemitic tradition. The title page of the Quarto indicates that the play was sometimes known as The Jew of Venice in its day, which suggests that it was seen as similar to Marlowe's The Jew of Malta. One interpretation of the play's structure is that Shakespeare meant to contrast the mercy of the main Christian characters with the vengefulness of a Jew, who lacks the religious grace to comprehend mercy. Similarly, it is possible that Shakespeare meant Shylock's forced conversion to Christianity to be a "happy ending" for the character, as it 'redeems' Shylock both from his unbelief and his specific sin of wanting to kill Antonio. This reading of the play would certainly fit with the antisemitic trends present in Elizabethan England.
Hyam Maccoby argues that the play is based on medieval morality plays in which the Virgin Mary (here represented by Portia) argues for the forgiveness of human souls, as against the implacable accusations of the Devil (Shylock).
[edit] The sympathetic reading
Many modern readers and theatregoers have read the play as a plea for tolerance as Shylock is a sympathetic character. Shylock's 'trial' at the end of the play is a mockery of justice, with Portia acting as a judge when she has no real right to do so. Thus, Shakespeare is not calling into question Shylock's intentions, but the fact that the very people who berated Shylock for being dishonest have had to resort to trickery in order to win. Shakespeare puts one of his most eloquent speeches into the mouth of this "villain":
Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions; fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, heal'd by the same means, warm'd and cool'd by the same winter and summer as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? If we are like you in the rest, we will resemble you in that. If a Jew wrong a Christian, what is his humility? Revenge. If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villainy you teach me, I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction.
—Act III, scene I
[edit] Influence on antisemitism
Regardless of what Shakespeare's own intentions may have been, the play has been made use of by antisemites throughout the play's history. One must note that the end of the title in the 1619 edition "With the Extreme Cruelty of Shylock the Jew…" must describe how Shylock was viewed by the English public. The Nazis used Shylock for their propaganda. Shortly after Kristallnacht in 1938, The Merchant of Venice was broadcast for propagandistic ends over the German airwaves. Productions of the play followed in Lübeck (1938), Berlin (1940), and elsewhere within the Nazi territory.[8]
The depiction of Jews in English literature throughout the centuries bears the close imprint of Shylock. With slight variations much of English literature up until the 20th century depicts the Jew as "a monied, cruel, lecherous, avaricious outsider tolerated only because of his golden hoard". [9]
[edit] Trivia
- The character's name is a synonym for loan shark, and as a verb to shylock means to lend money at exorbitant rates.
- "Pound of flesh" has also entered the lexicon as slang for a particularly onerous or unpleasant obligation.
[edit] References
- ^ Adler erroneously dates this from 1847 (at which time Kean was already dead); the Cambridge Student Guide to The Merchant of Venice dates Kean's performance to a more likely 1814.
- ^ Adler 1999, 341.
- ^ Wells and Dobson, p. 290.
- ^ Adler 1999, 342–44.
- ^ Adler 1999, 344–350
- ^ Philipe Burrin, Nazi Anti-Semitism: From Prejudice to Holocaust. The New Press, 2005, ISBN 1-56584-969-8, p. 17.
It was not until the twelfth century that in northern Europe (England, Germany, and France), a region until then peripheral but at this point expanding fast, a form of Judeophobia developed that was considerably more violent because of a new dimension of imagined behaviors, including accusations that Jews engaged in ritual murder, profanation of the host, and the poisoning of wells. With the preduces of the day against Jews, atheists and non christians in general Jews found it hard to fit in with society. Some say that these attitudes provided the foundations of anti-semitism in the 20th century. "
- ^ The Virtual Jewish History Tour - Venice
- ^ Lecture by James Shapiro: "Shakespeare and the Jews"
- ^ The Fictive Jew in the Literature of England 1890-1920 David Mirsky in the Samuel K. Mirsky Memorial Volume.
[edit] Bibliography
- Adler, Jacob, A Life on the Stage: A Memoir, translated and with commentary by Lulla Rosenfeld, Knopf, New York, 1999, ISBN 0-679-41351-0.
- Smith, Rob: Cambridge Student Guide to The Merchant of Venice. ISBN 0-521-00816-6.
[edit] Further reading
- Pooja Rohra, Shylock: A Legend and Its Legacy. Touchstone: 1994. ISBN 0-671-88386-0.
- Alisha Patel, Shylock Is Shakespeare. University of Chicago Press: 2006. ISBN 0-226-30977-0.
- Lara Baxter, Shakespeare and the Jews. Columbia University Press: 1997. ISBN 0-231-10345-X.
- Joseph Shatzmiller, Shylock Reconsidered: Jews, Moneylending, and Medieval Society. University of California Press: 1990. ISBN 0-520-06635-9.
- Martin Yaffe, Shylock and the Jewish Question. Johns Hopkins University Press: 1997. ISBN 0-8018-5648-5.
- M.G. Vassanji, The In-Between World of Vikram Lall. Doubleday Canada: 2003. ISBN 0-385-65990-3.
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Parliament Thursday debated the rising food prices, but very few MPs were present in the Lok Sabha to discuss the issue.India has said government officials will be banned from holding posts in religion-oriented institutions, as it tabled a report on the razing of a mosque 17 years ago that caused widespread riots.
Today, one of my friends in ONGC, a Exploration scientist called me at home and wanted to meet me. I called him in my Office in the Evening. He came with with a Bamcef Vodkar Activist, Sanjay das based in Lucknow and entrusted with the task of Mobilisation in Bengal. The Scienties informed me that the ONGC explorated the KG basin but RIL has got the maximum benefit.He was worried of Disinvestment Drive in PSUS, listing of Oil companies and we also discussed the Auction of Oil Fields. Mr Das invited me for their Seminar to be held on 29th. We discussed a little bit Ideology and I had to warn the young friends that there would not be any so called social Movement once Resrvation and Quota FINISHED. beause the Ambedkarites have nothing to do the Ambedkarite Ideology and Reluctant to involve themselves in Resistance at any level. They gather just to harvest the Benefit of the Constitutional safeguards and NEVER do understand the Economy and Hegemony. In Bengal, the SC and OBC Comminities have reduced themselves as Converted Brahamins and I see no scope for any Change whatsoever in Bengal in near Future! Rather I am interseted in Mobilising all Social and Producive forces including the Ambedkarites and nationality Movements altogther.
During my travel in Princep Ghat Down local this evening I had the normal interactions with daily commuters who were rather interested in Card Playing.We were talking of Price rising and market scenerio. Everytyhing is available in Open Market Provided you have the Purcahsing Power. Nothing is Prohibited. You amy get Rs Seven Hundred KILO Tortoise meat in Open Market. Drugs and Wine available and human Trafficking is quite Profitable as SONAGACHHI Extends day by day. Even HUMAN Meat might be available and the Marketing government would be pleased to cater it to the Consumers of shining Sensex India!
According to the PakTribune, cannibalism is still being practiced in India by members Hindu Aghora sect. Even more amazing is the implication that this sect may be responsible for the deaths of Western tourists who go missing - sacrifices for Indian religion. It is also indicated more than once that babies and children are prized sacrifices for cannibalistic consumption.
Ritual murder of babies? Cannibalism for spiritual power? The PakTribune is a Pakistani news outlet and it seems much more likely that the story is designed to inflame passions against India than to inform about a weird and possibly dangerous religious sect.
Prices to climb further because the global economy is growing again, RBA official says!Exxaro Resources said that coal prices were likely to rise to between $70 (R522) and $75 per tonne in 2010 from around $65 per tonne this year on the back of rising global demand.India's rupee fell for the first time in three days on speculation the nation's refiners stepped up purchases of dollars to guard against rising oil costs.Rice prices may return to last year's record levels and the world will see repeated food shortages without investment to boost production, the International Rice Research Institute said.China's stimulus spending has fueled massive overexpansion in industrial capacity that could drive a surge in low-priced exports amid weak global demand, possibly igniting a protectionist backlash abroad, a European business group warned Thursday.
As the horrors of the 26/11 strike came back to haunt India, people from all walks of life remember the day and speak out against terror.On the other hand,the government is "deeply concerned" about rising prices and will take all fiscal and monetary measures to contain prices, the finance minister said on Thursday.The dollar's sway over energy markets was on full display Wednesday, with oil and gasoline futures rising sharply as the U.S. currency tumbled to 15-month lows.Crude prices had been trading relatively flat, even after the government reported supplies grew by 1 million barrels last week.
"We are deeply concerned when prices go high," Pranab Mukherjee told parliament. "It will have to done by us - control of monetary policy, control of credit policy, control of fiscal policy."
Three Non Government Organisations (NGOs) will launch a campaign from November 28 to disprove the Madhya Pradesh Government's claim that the huge waste lying in the defunct Union Carbide Factory here was not toxic and hazardous.
"The campaign will start on November 28 -- five days before the 25th anniversary of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy in which thousands of people were killed and maimed," Bhopal Group for Information and Action Convener Satinath Sarangi told reporters here on Thursday. Sarangi said that Madhya Pradesh Chief Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan and State Bhopal Gas Tragedy Relief and Rehabilitation Minister Babulal Gaur were favouring Dow Chemicals which has taken over Union Carbide, claiming that waste lying in the factory was not toxic.
Most Saleable is Human Meat and Ruling Heegmonies Enact Cannibals Urban as Shylock Returns with Vengeance. Price Rise Index Remains Well Ness Indicator for the Market Dominating Communities!The first anniversary of the horrific 26/11 Mumbai terror carnage was also the 60th anniversary of the adoption of the Indian constitution but sadly, this did not get the attention it deserved, a Rajya Sabha MP lamented Thursday.
Singur to Lalgarh, the Circle is COMPLETE to understand how our Democracy works. How the grass root level people have the opportunities to liberate themselves with their identities and nationalities, folk roots INTACT ! I also tried to trace the history of Genocide Culture, Americanisation of Indian Society, Politics and economics and the Global Resistance. I updated the Subaltern studies, literature, culture and History as much as possible! I tried to be interactive and my blogs have always been Open Forum where I posted correspondence and updates from both the Hemisphere!
Farmers, protesting the state government's sugarcane pricing policy, on Thursday stopped trains, pelted stones at cars and buses, blocked highways and clashed with police in Uttar Pradesh's Muzaffarnagar, Baghpat and Faizabad districts, officials said. No casualties were reported in the violence till evening.
Several groups of farmers vandalised public and private property in Muzaffarnagar's Ahlam town, about 350 km from Lucknow, and also damaged rail tracks there.
I tried to trace the Chronology in my Blogs as I could not get any space in mainstream media for these issues as a creative writer or professional journalist.
I tried to present a first version story and analysis with maximum information and updates with relevant material and links.
Humanitarian Catastrophe! ECONOMY and POLITICS Combined CRETES SO A MANY GAZAS at HOME Like NANDIGRAM, SINGUR, PASCO and MARICHJHANPI!
SATYAM ASATYAM EPISODE is NOTHING but an EXPOSURE of the PERSECUTION
of the Productive FORCES and the DECIET ffaced by Generation Next!
MARXIST IDEOLOGY Brahaminised BRUTALLY!
My father Pulin Kumar Biswas never believed communists after Telengana and Dhiri Block betrayal. During seventies, while I was engaged in students` movement and later in Uttarakhand sangharsha Vahini, he would never listen any reference to ideology. Rather he sounded like George Bernard Shaw who said, `"The Apple Cart exposes the unreality of both democracy and royalty as our idealists conceive them." In fact, The Apple Cart is a treatise on the impossibility of any kind of government. Democracy, autocracy, and monarchy are all making the best of a bad situation, and none of them is doing very well. Shaw is no anarchist; he simply wants us to recognize, as King Magnus does, the invisible shackles that trip government and turn it into a farce. Shaw wrote in the `Preface to Apple Cart', Besides, the conflict is not really between royalty and democracy. It is between both and plutocracy, which, having destroyed the royal power by frank force under democratic pretexts, has bought and swallowed democracy. Money talks: money prints: money broadcasts: money reigns; and kings and labor leaders alike have to register its decrees, and even, by a staggering paradox, to finance its enterprises and guarantee its profits. Democracy is no longer bought: it is bilked. Ministers who are Socialists to the backbone are as helpless in the grip of Breakages Limited as its acknowledged henchmen: from the moment when they attain to what is with unintentional irony called power (meaning the drudgery of carrying on for the plutocrats) they no longer dare even to talk of nationalizing any industry, however socially vital, that has a farthing of profit for plutocracy still left in it, or that can be made to yield a farthing for it by subsidies.'
Ideology sounds always good. It was good enough in Soviet Union and in the entire communist world. What happened , it is history.
I was just born and I have simply no memory of Dhimri Block uprising in Himalayan terai. but I had enough opportunity to witness the trail and victimisation. In late sixties the communists in terai played the role of landbrokers in the same way as buddha is doing it in West Bengal on full scale. In our Bengali Refugee areas the communist villages were Netaji Nagar, Vijay Nagar, Pipulia, Chandipur, etc. Most of the communist peasants in these villages lost their land and leaders had their hand.
When Bengali refugees settled in MP, Maharashtra, Andhra and Orrissa were planning to launch Marichjhapi agitaion, my father Pulin Kumar Biswas went to Mana Camp and tried to convince the refugees that it will be a folly to depend on the communist leaders in West Bengal. Jyoti Basu had visited Vilai and ram chatterjee went to mana to mobilise the agitation. Since my father has a very good relations with ND Tiwari and KC pant, the rfugee leaders did not believe him . He was the president of all India Bengali Refugee committe. He was mishandled and was saved by police. My father came back to Nainital and no refugee joined this Matrichjhapi movement under his influence ie UP, Bihar and Assam. What happened is Marichjhapi genocide by the Jyoti Basu government. I also protested the movement purely on ecological ground as I believed that sundar Van must be protected and Marichjhapi won`t solve the refugee problem. My father was very sad that no refugee movement could be mobilised in bengal and he held left responsible for this.
My father died in 2001. I still have faith in communist ideologybut I see the picture of ideological betrayal very clear. Sumit Sarkar and Tanika Sarkar always supported CPI-M and they are out to lodge their protest on indiscriminate land garbbing. Mahashweta Devi, arundhati Roy, Aparna Sen, Meeratul Naher, Ratan Basu Majumdar and the entire Bengal intellegentia is known for its left ideology. Even Medha Patekar launched so many movements with left countrywide. Now everyone is against left. Why? so everyone turns to be Naxalite!
Gold struck another historic peak of Rs 18,000 per ten gram in the national capital today on sustained buying by stockists for the current marriage season amid a weakening dollar and reports that more central banks might purchase gold from the IMF. The yellow metal spurted by Rs 220 to Rs 18,000 per ten gram, a level never seen before, on seasonal buying and as prices in international markets touched record levels with the dollar extending its losses. Traders said a weak dollar made the precious metal cheaper for buyers using stronger currencies.
Gold hit 1,180.20 dollars an ounce shortly after 1230 IST in trading on the London Bullion Market. The yellow metal is benefiting from its reputation as a hedge against inflation and anaemic economic growth in the West.
The gold has rallied 11 per cent after India bought 200 metric tons of gold from the International Monetary Fund in October. Mauritius, Sri Lanka and Russia have followed suit since then.
"Gold is moving on fast pace ever since the central banks started purchasing the metal," said Rakesh Anand of R K Jeweller, and added the market already passing through a bullish time on buying for the current marriage season. The precious metal in Asian region traded 0.8 per cent higher at 1,179.20 dollar an ounce while in futures trading in New York surged to record 1,181.60 dollar an ounce.
Since parliament opened last week, opposition parties had been demanding a "long debate" over the "burning issue" of rising prices of essential commodities. But when it finally happened, most MPs were absent.
At one point during the debate, only 80 of the 545 Lok Sabha members were in the house. And the presence never crossed 90 till 4 p.m. after the debate began at 1.30 p.m.
Even Leader of Opposition L.K. Advani was absent and so was his deputy Sushma Swaraj and most Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) members.
Among the treasury benches were a few ministers including Agriculture Minister Sharad Pawar, who was the target of criticism from the MPs who spoke.
The issue has brought together adversaries like the Left parties, the BJP, the Samajwadi Party, Bahujan Samaj Party and the Rashtriya Lok Dal of Ajit Singh, who was also absent.
BJP's Murli Manohar Joshi in his long speech alleged that the government was "ignoring the farming community and deliberately not allowing the country to be self-sufficient" in food.
"Your pricing policy is anti-people," Joshi said. "You are serving your friends in the US at the cost of the poor."
Quoting an article by veteran journalist and former MP Kuldip Nayar, the BJP leader said the government had not realised that the growth rate doesn't reduce poverty and hunger. "It aggravates both."
He said the model of industrial agriculture and globalised trade on food are responsible for the hunger and farmers "inevitably depend on debt".
"You are putting at stake our sovereignty by continuously making the country dependent on food import," he said.
"Wake up, Mr Agriculture Minister. Be courageous and tell your government that your policies are wrong."
Samajwadi Party chief Mulayam Singh Yadav said the government was ignoring India's annual food inflation that has touched a new high.
"Please, Mr Minister, tell us why is this happening. Why is India weakening day by day? Why cannot you control prices? You are known as farmers' leader and still Indian farmers are suffering," he said, as the minister was seen dozing off during the debate.
Mulayam Singh said one-fourth of the nation's wealth belonged to only 100 families.
"How much will you help them in growing their wealth and ignoring a poor farmer?" he asked.
Taking a dig at the government's pricing policy, the Samajwadi Party leader said: "A farmer is made to sell his crop cheaply and when he goes to buy commodities, he finds them unaffordable. Why? Which policy are you following?"
The house debated as India's annual food inflation based on the official wholesale price index jumped to 15.58 percent for the week ended Nov 14, as prices of potatoes more than doubled, while onion became dearer by 27 percent over the past 52 weeks.
Cannibalism
The term cannibalism means the eating of human flesh by human beings, and/or eating of animals by members of their own species. Cannibalism was derived from the Carib Indians, discovered by Christopher Columbus, of the West Indies. The Caribs were man-eaters, and the Spanish name for the tribe was Canibales, meaning bloodthirsty and cruel.
The practice of cannibalism reaches back into antiquity and has been found in many areas of the world. Evidence indicates that it may have been practiced as early as the Neolithic Period. The Greek historian Herodotus and other ancient writers gave accounts of various ancient people as being cannibals. Marco Polo reported tribes ranging from Tibet to Sumatra who practiced cannibalism. North American Indian tribes of the western coast of the Gulf of Mexico practiced cannibalism. Until recently the practice prevailed throughout much of central and western Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Melanesia, Sumatra, New Guinea, Polynesia, and remote portions of South America.
Cannibalism at times has had religious significance. This stems from the belief that the person who eats of the deceased person acquires the desired qualities or characteristics of that person, which resemble the theory of sympathetic magic; examples of this are seen in Attraction of Blood. Rituals were performed for many reasons including purification, pacification of gods, and ancestor worship. In a few instances cannibalism has been practiced for just revenge. In other cases it was believed that the ghost of the enemy would be utterly destroyed when his body was eaten, thus leaving nothing in which his spirit could exist.
Some examples of religious cannibalism are these: The Binderwurs of central India ate their sick and aged in the belief that the act was pleasing to their goddess Kali. In Mexico the Aztecs to their deities sacrificed thousands of human victims annually. Following the sacrifices, the Aztec priest and people ate the bodies of the victims believing the acts brought them closer to their gods.
Cannibalism is nearly considered a taboo among Western cultures and the instances of it occurring are extremely rare. In the case of starvation it has occurred. Two notable cases are the first in America, the Donner Party caught crossing the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California during the winter of 1846-1847; and the second in Chile in 1972, sixteen members of a Uruguayan soccer team survived for 70 days after their airliner crashed in the Andres Mountains.
Some animals have been known to participate in cannibalism. Wolves are known to eat injured members of their packs. Rats and pigs have been observed eating the young of their species. Among insect it is well know that the female spider eats the male after mating. Larger mantes often eat smaller ones, and the female mantis devours the male. A.G.H.
http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/c/cannibalism.html
Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice
By: Dr. Sam Vaknin
"I believe that when man evolves a civilization higher than the mechanized but still primitive one he has now, the eating of human flesh will be sanctioned. For then man will have thrown off all of his superstitions and irrational taboos."
(Diego Rivera)
"One calls 'barbarism' whatever he is not accustomed to."
(Montaigne, On Cannibalism)
"Then Jesus said unto them, Verily, verily, I say unto you, Except ye eat the flesh of the Son of man, and drink his blood, ye have no life in you. Whoso eateth my flesh, and drinketh my blood, hath eternal life; and I will raise him up at the last day. For my flesh is meat indeed, and my blood is drink indeed."
(New Testament, John 6:53-55)
Cannibalism (more precisely, anthropophagy) is an age-old tradition that, judging by a constant stream of flabbergasted news reports, is far from extinct. Much-debated indications exist that our Neanderthal, Proto-Neolithic, and Neolithic (Stone Age) predecessors were cannibals. Similarly contested claims were made with regards to the 12th century advanced Anasazi culture in the southwestern United States and the Minoans in Crete (today's Greece).
The Britannica Encyclopedia (2005 edition) recounts how the "Binderwurs of central India ate their sick and aged in the belief that the act was pleasing to their goddess, Kali." Cannibalism may also have been common among followers of the Shaktism cults in India.
Other sources attribute cannibalism to the 16th century Imbangala in today's Angola and Congo, the Fang in Cameroon, the Mangbetu in Central Africa, the Ache in Paraguay, the Tonkawa in today's Texas, the Calusa in current day Florida, the Caddo and Iroquois confederacies of Indians in North America, the Cree in Canada, the Witoto, natives of Colombia and Peru, the Carib in the Lesser Antilles (whose distorted name - Canib - gave rise to the word "cannibalism"), to Maori tribes in today's New Zealand, and to various peoples in Sumatra (like the Batak).
The Wikipedia numbers among the practitioners of cannibalism the ancient Chinese, the Korowai tribe of southeastern Papua, the Fore tribe in New Guinea (and many other tribes in Melanesia), the Aztecs, the people of Yucatan, the Purchas from Popayan, Colombia, the denizens of the Marquesas Islands of Polynesia, and the natives of the captaincy of Sergipe in Brazil.
From Congo and Central Africa to Germany and from Mexico to New Zealand, cannibalism is enjoying a morbid revival of interest, if not of practice. A veritable torrent of sensational tomes and movies adds to our ambivalent fascination with man-eaters.
Cannibalism is not a monolithic affair. It can be divided thus:
I. Non-consensual consumption of human flesh post-mortem
For example, when the corpses of prisoners of war are devoured by their captors. This used to be a common exercise among island tribes (e.g., in Fiji, the Andaman and Cook islands) and is still the case in godforsaken battle zones such as Congo (formerly Zaire), or among the defeated Japanese soldiers in World War II.
Similarly, human organs and fetuses as well as mummies are still being gobbled up - mainly in Africa and Asia - for remedial and medicinal purposes and in order to enhance one's libido and vigor.
On numerous occasions the organs of dead companions, colleagues, family, or neighbors were reluctantly ingested by isolated survivors of horrid accidents (the Uruguay rugby team whose plane crashed in the Andes, the boat people fleeing Asia), denizens of besieged cities (e.g., during the siege of Leningrad), members of exploratory expeditions gone astray (the Donner Party in Sierra Nevada, California and John Franklin's Polar expedition), famine-stricken populations (Ukraine in the 1930s, China in the 1960s), and the like.
Finally, in various pre-nation-state and tribal societies, members of the family were encouraged to eat specific parts of their dead relatives as a sign of respect or in order to partake of the deceased's wisdom, courage, or other positive traits (endocannibalism).
II. Non-consensual consumption of human flesh from a live source
For example, when prisoners of war are butchered for the express purpose of being eaten by their victorious enemies.
A notorious and rare representative of this category of cannibalism is the punitive ritual of being eaten alive. The kings of the tribes of the Cook Islands were thought to embody the gods. They punished dissent by dissecting their screaming and conscious adversaries and consuming their flesh piecemeal, eyeballs first.
The Sawney Bean family in Scotland, during the reign of King James I, survived for decades on the remains (and personal belongings) of victims of their murderous sprees.
Real-life serial killers, like Jeffrey Dahmer, Albert Fish, Sascha Spesiwtsew, Fritz Haarmann, Issei Sagawa, and Ed Gein, lured, abducted, and massacred countless people and then consumed their flesh and preserved the inedible parts as trophies. These lurid deeds inspired a slew of books and films, most notably The Silence of the Lambs with Hannibal (Lecter) the Cannibal as its protagonist.
III. Consensual consumption of human flesh from live and dead human bodies
Armin Meiwes, the "Master Butcher (Der Metzgermeister)", arranged over the Internet to meet Bernd Jurgen Brandes on March 2001. Meiwes amputated the penis of his guest and they both ate it. He then proceeded to kill Brandes (with the latter's consent recorded on video), and snack on what remained of him. Sexual cannibalism is a paraphilia and an extreme - and thankfully, rare - form of fetishism.
The Aztecs willingly volunteered to serve as human sacrifices (and to be tucked into afterwards). They firmly believed that they were offerings, chosen by the gods themselves, thus being rendered immortal.
Dutiful sons and daughters in China made their amputated organs and sliced tissues (mainly the liver) available to their sick parents (practices known as Ko Ku and Ko Kan). Such donation were considered remedial. Princess Miao Chuang who surrendered her severed hands to her ailing father was henceforth deified.
Non-consensual cannibalism is murder, pure and simple. The attendant act of cannibalism, though aesthetically and ethically reprehensible, cannot aggravate this supreme assault on all that we hold sacred.
But consensual cannibalism is a lot trickier. Modern medicine, for instance, has blurred the already thin line between right and wrong.
What is the ethical difference between consensual, post-mortem, organ harvesting and consensual, post-mortem cannibalism?
Why is stem cell harvesting (from aborted fetuses) morally superior to consensual post-mortem cannibalism?
When members of a plane-wrecked rugby team, stranded on an inaccessible, snow-piled, mountain range resort to eating each other in order to survive, we turn a blind eye to their repeated acts of cannibalism - but we condemn the very same deed in the harshest terms if it takes place between two consenting, and even eager adults in Germany. Surely, we don't treat murder, pedophilia, and incest the same way!
As the Auxiliary Bishop of Montevideo said after the crash:
"... Eating someone who has died in order to survive is incorporating their substance, and it is quite possible to compare this with a graft. Flesh survives when assimilated by someone in extreme need, just as it does when an eye or heart of a dead man is grafted onto a living man..."
(Read, P.P. 1974. Alive. Avon, New York)
Complex ethical issues are involved in the apparently straightforward practice of consensual cannibalism.
Consensual, in vivo, cannibalism (a-la Messrs. Meiwes and Brandes) resembles suicide. The cannibal is merely the instrument of voluntary self-destruction. Why would we treat it different to the way we treat any other form of suicide pact?
Consensual cannibalism is not the equivalent of drug abuse because it has no social costs. Unlike junkies, the cannibal and his meal are unlikely to harm others. What gives society the right to intervene, therefore?
If we own our bodies and, thus, have the right to smoke, drink, have an abortion, commit suicide, and will our organs to science after we die - why don't we possess the inalienable right to will our delectable tissues to a discerning cannibal post-mortem (or to victims of famine in Africa)?
When does our right to dispose of our organs in any way we see fit crystallize? Is it when we die? Or after we are dead? If so, what is the meaning and legal validity of a living will? And why can't we make a living will and bequeath our cadaverous selves to the nearest cannibal?
Do dead people have rights and can they claim and invoke them while they are still alive? Is the live person the same as his dead body, does he "own" it, does the state have any rights in it? Does the corpse still retain its previous occupant's "personhood"? Are cadavers still human, in any sense of the word?
We find all three culinary variants abhorrent. Yet, this instinctive repulsion is a curious matter. The onerous demands of survival should have encouraged cannibalism rather than make it a taboo. Human flesh is protein-rich. Most societies, past and present (with the exception of the industrialized West), need to make efficient use of rare protein-intensive resources.
If cannibalism enhances the chances of survival - why is it universally prohibited? For many a reason.
I. The Sanctity of Life
Historically, cannibalism preceded, followed, or precipitated an act of murder or extreme deprivation (such as torture). It habitually clashed with the principle of the sanctity of life. Once allowed, even under the strictest guidelines, cannibalism tended to debase and devalue human life and foster homicide, propelling its practitioners down a slippery ethical slope towards bloodlust and orgiastic massacres.
II. The Afterlife
Moreover, in life, the human body and form are considered by most religions (and philosophers) to be the abode of the soul, the divine spark that animates us all. The post-mortem integrity of this shrine is widely thought to guarantee a faster, unhindered access to the afterlife, to immortality, and eventual reincarnation (or karmic cycle in eastern religions).
For this reason, to this very day, orthodox Jews refuse to subject their relatives to a post-mortem autopsy and organ harvesting. Fijians and Cook Islanders used to consume their enemies' carcasses in order to prevent their souls from joining hostile ancestors in heaven.
III. Chastening Reminders
Cannibalism is a chilling reminder of our humble origins in the animal kingdom. To the cannibal, we are no better and no more than cattle or sheep. Cannibalism confronts us with the irreversibility of our death and its finality. Surely, we cannot survive our demise with our cadaver mutilated and gutted and our skeletal bones scattered, gnawed, and chewed on?
IV. Medical Reasons
Infrequently, cannibalism results in prion diseases of the nervous system, such as kuru. The same paternalism that gave rise to the banning of drug abuse, the outlawing of suicide, and the Prohibition of alcoholic drinks in the 1920s - seeks to shelter us from the pernicious medical outcomes of cannibalism and to protect others who might become our victims.
V. The Fear of Being Objectified
Being treated as an object (being objectified) is the most torturous form of abuse. People go to great lengths to seek empathy and to be perceived by others as three dimensional entities with emotions, needs, priorities, wishes, and preferences.
The cannibal reduces others by treating them as so much meat. Many cannibal serial killers transformed the organs of their victims into trophies. The Cook Islanders sought to humiliate their enemies by eating, digesting, and then defecating them - having absorbed their mana (prowess, life force) in the process.
VI. The Argument from Nature
Cannibalism is often castigated as "unnatural". Animals, goes the myth, don't prey on their own kind.
Alas, like so many other romantic lores, this is untrue. Most species - including our closest relatives, the chimpanzees - do cannibalize. Cannibalism in nature is widespread and serves diverse purposes such as population control (chickens, salamanders, toads), food and protein security in conditions of scarcity (hippopotamuses, scorpions, certain types of dinosaurs), threat avoidance (rabbits, mice, rats, and hamsters), and the propagation of genetic material through exclusive mating (Red-back spider and many mantids).
Moreover, humans are a part of nature. Our deeds and misdeeds are natural by definition. Seeking to tame nature is a natural act. Seeking to establish hierarchies and subdue or relinquish our enemies are natural propensities. By avoiding cannibalism we seek to transcend nature. Refraining from cannibalism is the unnatural act.
VIII. The Argument from Progress
It is a circular syllogism involving a tautology and goes like this:
Cannibalism is barbaric. Cannibals are, therefore, barbarians. Progress entails the abolition of this practice.
The premises - both explicit and implicit - are axiomatic and, therefore, shaky. What makes cannibalism barbarian? And why is progress a desirable outcome? There is a prescriptive fallacy involved, as well:
Because we do not eat the bodies of dead people - we ought not to eat them.
VIII. Arguments from Religious Ethics
The major monotheistic religions are curiously mute when it comes to cannibalism. Human sacrifice is denounced numerous times in the Old Testament - but man-eating goes virtually unmentioned. The Eucharist in Christianity - when the believers consume the actual body and blood of Jesus - is an act of undisguised cannibalism:
"That the consequence of Transubstantiation, as a conversion of the total substance, is the transition of the entire substance of the bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ, is the express doctrine of the Church ...."
(Catholic Encyclopedia)
"CANON lI.-If any one saith, that, in the sacred and holy sacrament of the Eucharist, the substance of the bread and wine remains conjointly with the body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, and denieth that wonderful and singular conversion of the whole substance of the bread into the Body, and of the whole substance of the wine into the Blood-the species Only of the bread and wine remaining-which conversion indeed the Catholic Church most aptly calls Transubstantiation; let him be anathema.
CANON VIII.-lf any one saith, that Christ, given in the Eucharist, is eaten spiritually only, and not also sacramentally and really; let him be anathema."
(The Council of Trent, The Thirteenth Session - The canons and decrees of the sacred and oecumenical Council of Trent, Ed. and trans. J. Waterworth (London: Dolman, 1848), 75-91.)
Still, most systems of morality and ethics impute to Man a privileged position in the scheme of things (having been created in the "image of God"). Men and women are supposed to transcend their animal roots and inhibit their baser instincts (an idea incorporated into Freud's tripartite model of the human psyche). The anthropocentric chauvinistic view is that it is permissible to kill all other animals in order to consume their flesh. Man, in this respect, is sui generis.
Yet, it is impossible to rigorously derive a prohibition to eat human flesh from any known moral system. As Richard Routley-Silvan observes in his essay "In Defence of Cannibalism", that something is innately repugnant does not make it morally prohibited. Moreover, that we find cannibalism nauseating is probably the outcome of upbringing and conditioning rather than anything innate.
According to Greek mythology, Man was created from the ashes of the Titans, the children of Uranus and Gaea, whom Zeus struck with thunderbolts for murdering his son, Zagreus, and then devouring his body. Mankind, therefore, is directly descendant from the Titans, who may well have been the first cannibals.
Also Read:
Serial Killers as a Cultural Construct
Death, Life and the Question of Identity
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How rising prices affect you
April 14, 2008
With prices of essential commodities almost doubling in less than 3 months, the household budget has gone for a toss. Now with the Reserve Bank of India hinting at a rise in interest rates, the common man is in for tougher times ahead.
Rising prices have forced India's United Progressive Alliance government to take urgent measures -- like banning export of non-basmati rice, pulses, edible oil and cement -- to rein in runaway inflation. High inflation rate has taken a political colour in the country with the opposition Bharatiya Janata Party and Left allies accusing the government of its failure to address the aam aadmi's woes.
According to India Inc, however, the highest point in inflation is yet to hit India. A new survey says that nearly two-thirds of the executives in India expect prices to flare up in the next six months. The report -- Economic and Hiring Outlook, First Quarter 2008: A McKinsey Global Survey -- states that as many as 64 per cent of Indian executives expect the rate of inflation to rise in the next six month, while only 20 per cent expect a decline in the rate of price rise.
Among the products primarily responsible for the current inflation are food products of different kinds, including cereals, intermediates like metals and the universal intermediate, oil.
So why are prices rising and how do these affect people like you and me? Read on. . .
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Cannibalism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| | This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this article if you can. (September 2008) |
Cannibalism (from Caníbalis, the Spanish name for the Carib people[1]), also called anthropophagy, is the act or practice of humans eating the flesh of other human beings.
The term "cannibalism" is also used in zoology to mean the act of any species consuming members of its own kind. The expression "cannibalization" is in addition used metaphorically outside of biological fields to refer to the reuse of parts or ideas or to situations such as when a company's assets eat into its other assets. This article is about human cannibalism.
Cannibalism has recently been both practiced and fiercely condemned in several wars, especially in Liberia[2] and Congo.[3] Today, the Korowai are one of very few tribes still believed to eat human flesh.[4][5] It is also still known to be practiced as a ritual and in war in various Melanesian tribes.[6]
Cannibalism was widespread in the past among humans throughout the world, continuing into the 19th century in some isolated South Pacific cultures. Neanderthals are believed to have practiced cannibalism.[7][8] Among modern humans it has been practiced by various groups.[9] In the past, it has been practiced by humans in Europe,[10][11] South America,[12] India,[13] New Zealand,[14] North America,[15] Australia ,[16] the Solomon Islands,[17] parts of West Africa[5] and Central Africa,[5] some of the islands of Polynesia,[5] New Guinea,[18] Sumatra,[5] and Fiji,[19] usually in rituals connected to tribal warfare.[citation needed] Fiji was once known as the 'Cannibal Isles'. Evidence of cannibalism has been found in the Chaco Canyon ruins of the Anasazi culture.[20]
The closely related practice of headhunting continued in Europe until the early 20th century in the Balkan Peninsula and to the end of the Middle Ages in Ireland and the Scottish Marches.[21]
Contents[hide] |
[edit] Reasons for cannibalism
The reasons for cannibalism include the following:
- As sanctioned by a cultural norm
- By necessity in extreme situations of famine
- Caused by insanity or social deviancy
- Note that cannibalism is not mentioned in the formal index of insanity, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, presumably due to its rarity. The medical literature on the topic is likewise sparse. Cecil Adams discussed this in a 2004 edition in his popular newspaper column The Straight Dope headed "Eat or be eaten: Is cannibalism a pathology as listed in the DSM-IV?."
There are fundamentally two kinds of cannibalistic social behavior; endocannibalism (eating humans from the same community) and exocannibalism (eating humans from other communities).
A separate ethical distinction can be made to delineate between the practice of killing a human for food (homicidal cannibalism) versus eating the flesh of a person who was already dead (necro-cannibalism).
[edit] Overview
The social stigma against cannibalism has been used as an aspect of propaganda against an enemy by accusing them of acts of cannibalism to separate them from their humanity. The Carib tribe in the Lesser Antilles, from whom the word cannibalism derives, for example, acquired a longstanding reputation as cannibals following the recording of their legends by Fr. Breton in the 17th century. Some controversy exists over the accuracy of these legends and the prevalence of actual cannibalism in the culture.
During their period of expansion in the 15th through 17th centuries, Europeans equated cannibalism with evil and savagery. In the 16th century, Pope Innocent IV declared cannibalism a sin deserving to be punished by Christians through force of arms and Queen Isabella of Spain decreed that Spanish colonists could only legally enslave natives who were cannibals, giving the colonists an economic interest in making such allegations. This was used as a justification for employing violent means to subjugate native people. This theme dates back to Columbus' accounts of a supposedly ferocious group of man-eaters who lived in the Caribbean islands and parts of South America called the Caniba, which gave us the word cannibal.[22]
The Korowai tribe of southeastern Papua could be one of the last surviving tribes in the world engaging in cannibalism, although there have been media reports of soldiers/rebels in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Liberia eating body parts[23] to intimidate child soldiers or captives.[24] Marvin Harris has analyzed cannibalism and other food taboos. He argued that it was common when humans lived in small bands, but disappeared in the transition to states, the Aztecs being an exception.
A well known case of mortuary cannibalism is that of the Fore tribe in New Guinea which resulted in the spread of the prion disease Kuru. It is often believed to be well-documented, although no eyewitnesses have ever been at hand. Some scholars argue that although postmortem dismemberment was the practice during funeral rites, cannibalism was not. Marvin Harris theorizes that it happened during a famine period coincident with the arrival of Europeans and was rationalized as a religious rite.
In pre-modern medicine, an explanation for cannibalism stated that it came about within a black acrimonious humour, which, being lodged in the linings of the ventricle, produced the voracity for human flesh.[25]
Some now-challenged research received a large amount of press attention when scientists suggested that early humans may have practiced cannibalism. Later reanalysis of the data found serious problems with this hypothesis. According to the original research, genetic markers commonly found in modern humans all over the world suggest that today many people carry a gene that evolved as protection against brain diseases that can be spread by consuming human brains.[26] Later reanalysis of the data claims to have found a data collection bias, which led to an erroneous conclusion:[27] that in some cases blame for incidents claimed as evidence has been given to 'primitive' local cultures, where in fact the cannibalism was practiced by explorers, stranded seafarers or escaped convicts.[28]
[edit] As cultural libel
| | This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this section if you can. (May 2009) |
Unsubstantiated reports of cannibalism disproportionately relate cases of cannibalism among cultures that are already otherwise despised, feared, or are little known. In antiquity, Greek reports of cannibalism, (often called anthropophagy in this context) were related to distant non-Hellenic barbarians, or else relegated in Greek mythology to the 'primitive' chthonic world that preceded the coming of the Olympian gods: see the explicit rejection of human sacrifice in the cannibal feast prepared for the Olympians by Tantalus of his son Pelops. All South Sea Islanders were cannibals so far as their enemies were concerned. When the whaleship Essex was rammed and sunk by a whale in 1820, the captain opted to sail 3000 miles upwind to Chile rather than 1400 miles downwind to the Marquesas because he had heard the Marquesans were cannibals. Ironically many of the survivors of the shipwreck resorted to cannibalism in order to survive.
However, Herman Melville happily lived with the Marquesan Typees (Taipi), rumoured to have been the most vicious of the island group's cannibal tribes, but also may have witnessed evidence of cannibalism. In his autobiographical novel Typee, he reports seeing shrunken heads and having strong evidence that the tribal leaders ceremonially consumed the bodies of killed warriors of the neighboring tribe after a skirmish.
William Arens, author of The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy (New York : Oxford University Press, 1979; ISBN 0-19-502793-0), questions the credibility of reports of cannibalism and argues that the description by one group of people of another people as cannibals is a consistent and demonstrable ideological and rhetorical device to establish perceived cultural superiority. Arens bases his thesis on a detailed analysis of numerous "classic" cases of cultural cannibalism cited by explorers, missionaries, and anthropologists. His findings were that many were steeped in racism, unsubstantiated, or based on second-hand or hearsay evidence. In combing the literature he could not find a single credible eye-witness account. And, as he points out, the hallmark of ethnography is the observation of a practice prior to description. In the end he concluded that cannibalism was not the widespread prehistoric practice it was claimed to be; that anthropologists were too quick to pin the cannibal label on a group based not on responsible research but on our own culturally-determined pre-conceived notions, often motivated by a need to exoticize. He wrote:
Anthropologists have made no serious attempt to disabuse the public of the widespread notion of the ubiquity of anthropophagists. ... in the deft hands and fertile imaginations of anthropologists, former or contemporary anthropophagists have multiplied with the advance of civilization and fieldwork in formerly unstudied culture areas. ...The existence of man-eating peoples just beyond the pale of civilization is a common ethnographic suggestion.[29]
Arens' findings are controversial, and have been cited as an example of postcolonial revisionism.[30] His argument is often mischaracterized as "cannibals do not and never did exist",[citation needed] when in the end the book is actually a call for a more responsible and reflective approach to anthropological research. At any rate, the book ushered in an era of rigorous combing of the cannibalism literature. By Arens' later admission, some cannibalism claims came up short, others were reinforced.
Conversely, Michel de Montaigne's essay "Of cannibals" introduced a new multicultural note in European civilization. Montaigne wrote that "one calls 'barbarism' whatever he is not accustomed to." By using a title like that and describing a fair indigean society, Montaigne may have wished to provoke a surprise in the reader of his Essays.
[edit] During starvation
Cannibalism has been occasionally practiced as a last resort by people suffering from famine. In colonial Jamestown, colonists resorted to cannibalism during a period known as the Starving Time, from 1609-1610. After food supplies were diminished, some colonists began to dig up corpses for food. During this time period, one man confessed to killing his pregnant wife, salting, and eating her, before being burned alive as punishment.[31]
In the US, the group of settlers known as the Donner party resorted to cannibalism while snowbound in the mountains for the winter. The last survivors of Sir John Franklin's Expedition were found to have resorted to cannibalism in their final push across King William Island towards the Back River.[32] There are many claims that cannibalism was widespread during the famine of Ukraine in the 1930s, during the Siege of Leningrad in World War II,[33][34] and during the Chinese Civil War and the Great Leap Forward in the People's Republic of China.[35] There were also rumors of several cannibalism outbreaks during World War II in the Nazi concentration camps where the prisoners were malnourished.[36] Cannibalism was also practiced by Japanese troops as recently as World War II in the Pacific theater.[37] A more recent example is of leaked stories from North Korean refugees of cannibalism practiced during and after a famine that occurred sometime between 1995 and 1997.[38]
Lowell Thomas records the cannibalisation of some of the surviving crew members of the Dumaru after the ship exploded and sank during the First World War in his book, The Wreck of the Dumaru (1930). Another case of shipwrecked survivors forced to engage in cannibalism was that of the Medusa, a French vessel which in 1816 ran aground on the Banc d'Arguin (English: The Bank of Arguin) off the coast of Africa, about sixty miles distant from shore.
In 1972, the survivors of Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571, consisting of the rugby team from Stella Maris College in Montevideo and some of their family members, were resorted to cannibalism during their entrapment at the crash site. They had been stranded since October 13 and rescue operations at the crash site did not commence until December 22. The story of the survivors was chronicled in Piers Paul Read's 1974 book, Alive: The Story of the Andes Survivors, in a 1993 film adaptation of the book, called simply Alive, and in a 2008 documentary: Stranded: I've Come From a Plane That Crashed on the Mountains.
It is believed[who?] that cannibalism took place on Easter Island after the construction of the Moai caused an ecosystem collapse starting with the inaccessibility of wood to build fishing boats.[citation needed]
[edit] Themes in mythology and religion
Cannibalism features in many mythologies, and is most often attributed to evil characters or as extreme retribution for some wrong. Examples include The witch in Hansel and Gretel and Baba Yaga of Slavic folklore.
A number of stories in Greek mythology involve cannibalism, in particular cannibalism of close family members, for example the stories of Thyestes, Tereus and especially Cronus, who was Saturn in the Roman pantheon. The story of Tantalus also parallels this. These mythologies inspired Shakespeare's cannibalism scene in Titus Andronicus.
In the Christian tradition, cannibalism is symbolically represented in the form of communion and the Eucharist. Protestants, in general, consider communion as symbolic, while Catholics teach that the Eucharist is literal, through their belief of transubstantiation.[39]
Hindu mythology describes evil demons called "asura" or "rakshasa" that dwell in the forests and practice extreme violence including devouring their own kind, and possess many evil supernatural powers. These are however the Hindu equivalent of "demons" and do not relate to actual tribes of forest-dwelling people.
The Wendigo (also Windigo, Weendigo, Windago, Windiga, Witiko, Wihtikow, and numerous other variants) is a mythical creature appearing in the mythology of the Algonquian people. It is a malevolent cannibalistic spirit into which humans could transform, or which could possess humans. Those who indulged in cannibalism were at particular risk[40], and the legend appears to have reinforced this practice as taboo. The name is Wiindigoo in the Ojibwe language (the source of the English word[41]), Wìdjigò in the Algonquin language, and Wīhtikōw in the Cree language; the Proto-Algonquian term was *wi·nteko·wa, which probably originally meant "owl".[42]
[edit] Historical accounts
[edit] Pre-history
Some anthropologists, such as Tim White, suggest that cannibalism was common in human societies prior to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period. This theory is based on the large amount of "butchered human" bones found in Neanderthal and other Lower/Middle Paleolithic sites.[43] Cannibalism in the Lower and Middle Paleolithic may have occurred because of food shortages.[44]
[edit] Early history
Cannibalism is mentioned many times in early history and literature. It is reported in the Bible during the siege of Samaria (2 Kings 6:25–30). Two women made a pact to eat their children; after the first mother cooked her child the second mother ate it but refused to reciprocate by cooking her own child. A similar story is reported by Flavius Josephus during the siege of Jerusalem by Rome in 70 AD, and the population of Numantia during the Roman Siege of Numantia in the second century BC was reduced to cannibalism and suicide. Cannibalism was also well-documented in Egypt during a famine caused by the failure of the Nile to flood for eight years (1073-1064 BCE).
As in modern times, though, reports of cannibalism were often told as apocryphal second and third-hand stories, with widely varying levels of accuracy. St. Jerome, in his letter Against Jovinianus, discusses how people come to their present condition as a result of their heritage, and then lists several examples of peoples and their customs. In the list, he mentions that he has heard that Atticoti eat human flesh and that Massagetae and Derbices (a people on the borders of India) kill and eat old people.(---The Tibareni crucify those whom they have loved before when they have grown old---). ; this points to likelihood that St. Jerome's writing came from rumours and does not represent the situation accurately.[45]
Researchers have found physical evidence of cannibalism in ancient times. In 2001, archaeologists at the University of Bristol found evidence of Iron Age cannibalism in Gloucestershire.[46] In Germany, Emil Carthaus and Dr. Bruno Bernhard have observed 1,891 signs of cannibalism in the caves at the Hönne (1000 - 700 BCE).[47]
[edit] Middle Ages
During the Muslim-Qurayš wars in the early 7th century, cases of cannibalism have been reported. Following at the Battle of Uhud in 625, it is said that after killing Hamzah ibn Abdu l-Muṭṭalib, his liver was consumed by Hind bint 'Utbah, the wife of Abû Sufyan ibn Harb (one of the commanders of the Qurayš army).[48] Although she later converted to Islam, and was the mother of Muawiyah I, the founder of the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate, Muawiyah was later slandered to be an unacceptable leader and the son of a cannibal.
Reports of cannibalism were also recorded during the First Crusade, as Crusaders fed on the bodies of their dead opponents following the Siege of Ma'arrat al-Numan. It is also possible that the Crusaders staged such incidents as part of psychological warfare. Amin Maalouf also discusses further cannibalism incidents on the march to Jerusalem, and to the efforts made to delete mention of these from western history.[49] During Europe's Great Famine of 1315–1317 there were many reports of cannibalism among the starving populations. In North Africa, as in Europe, there are references to cannibalism as a last resort in times of famine.[50]
The Muslim explorer Ibn Batutta reported that one African king advised him that nearby people were cannibals (this may have been a prank played on Ibn Batutta by the king in order to fluster his guest).
For a brief time in Europe, an unusual form of cannibalism occurred when thousands of Egyptian mummies preserved in bitumen were ground up and sold as medicine.[51] The practice developed into a wide-scale business which flourished until the late 16th century. This "fad" ended because the mummies were revealed to actually be recently killed slaves. Two centuries ago, mummies were still believed to have medicinal properties against bleeding, and were sold as pharmaceuticals in powdered form (see human mummy confection).[52]
References to cannibalizing the enemy has also been seen in poetry written when China was repressed in the Song Dynasty, though the cannibalizing is perhaps poetic symbolism, expressing hatred towards the enemy (see Man Jiang Hong).
While there is universal agreement that some Mesoamerican people practiced human sacrifice, there is a lack of scholarly consensus as to whether cannibalism in pre-Columbian America was widespread. At one extreme, anthropologist Marvin Harris, author of Cannibals and Kings, has suggested that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward, since the Aztec diet was lacking in proteins. While most pre-Columbian historians believe that there was ritual cannibalism related to human sacrifices, they do not support Harris's thesis that human flesh was ever a significant portion of the Aztec diet.[53][54][55]
[edit] Early modern era
European explorers and colonizers brought home many stories of cannibalism practiced by the native peoples they encountered. The friar Diego de Landa reported about Yucatán instances, Yucatan before and after the Conquest, translated from Relación de las cosas de Yucatan, 1566 (New York: Dover Publications, 1978: 4), and there have been similar reports by Purchas from Popayán, Colombia, and from the Marquesas Islands of Polynesia, where human flesh was called long-pig (Alanna King, ed., Robert Louis Stevenson in the South Seas, London: Luzac Paragon House, 1987: 45–50). It is recorded about the natives of the captaincy of Sergipe in Brazil, "They eat human flesh when they can get it, and if a woman miscarries devour the abortive immediately. If she goes her time out, she herself cuts the navel-string with a shell, which she boils along with the secondine, and eats them both.'" (See E. Bowen, 1747: 532.)
Reports of cannibalism among the Texas tribes were often applied to the Karankawa and the Tonkawa.[56][57] Though cannibals, the fierce Tonkawas were great friends of the white Texas settlers, helping them against all their enemies.[58] Among the North American tribes which practiced cannibalism in some form may be mentioned the Montagnais, and some of the tribes of Maine; the Algonkin, Armouchiquois, Iroquois, and Micmac; in the South the Seminole people who built the mounds in Florida, and the Tonkawa, Attacapa, Karankawa, Kiowa, Caddo, and Comanche (?); in the Northwest and West, portions of the continent, the Thlingchadinneh and other Athapascan tribes, the Tlingit, Heiltsuk, Kwakiutl, Tsimshian, Nootka, Siksika, some of the Californian tribes, and the Ute. There is also a tradition of the practice among the Hopi, and mentions of the custom among other tribes of New Mexico and Arizona. The Mohawk, and the Attacapa, Tonkawa, and other Texas tribes were known to their neighbours as "man-eaters."[59]
As with most lurid tales of native cannibalism, these stories are treated with a great deal of scrutiny, as accusations of cannibalism were often used as justifications for the subjugation or destruction of "savages." However, there were several well-documented cultures that engaged in regular eating of the dead, such as New Zealand's Maori. In one infamous 1809 incident, 66 passengers and crew of the ship the Boyd were killed and eaten by Māori on the Whangaroa peninsula, Northland. (See also: Boyd massacre) Cannibalism was already a regular practice in Māori wars.[60] In another instance, on 11 July 1821 warriors from the Ngapuhi tribe killed 2,000 enemies and remained on the battlefield "eating the vanquished until they were driven off by the smell of decaying bodies".[61] Māori warriors fighting the New Zealand Government in Titokowaru's War in New Zealand's North Island in 1868–69 revived ancient rites of cannibalism as part of the radical Hauhau movement of the Pai Marire religion.[62]
Other islands in the Pacific were home to cultures that allowed cannibalism to some degree. The dense population of Marquesas Islands, Polynesia, was concentrated in the narrow valleys, and consisted of warring tribes, who sometimes cannibalized their enemies. In parts of Melanesia, cannibalism was still practiced in the early 20th century, for a variety of reasons — including retaliation, to insult an enemy people, or to absorb the dead person's qualities.[63] One tribal chief in Fiji is said to have consumed 872 people and to have made a pile of stones to record his achievement.[64] The ferocity of the cannibal lifestyle deterred European sailors from going near Fijian waters, giving Fiji the name Cannibal Isles.
This period of time was also rife with instances of explorers and seafarers resorting to cannibalism for survival. The survivors of the sinking of the French ship Medusa in 1816 resorted to cannibalism after four days adrift on a raft and their plight was made famous by Théodore Géricault's painting Raft of the Medusa. The misfortunes of the Donner Party in the United States are also well-known. After the sinking of the Essex of Nantucket by a whale, on November 20, 1820, (an important source event for Herman Melville's Moby-Dick) the survivors, in three small boats, resorted, by common consent, to cannibalism in order for some to survive.[65] Sir John Franklin's lost polar expedition is another example of cannibalism out of desperation.[66]
The case of R v. Dudley and Stephens (1884) 14 QBD 273 (QB) is an English case which dealt with four crew members of an English yacht, the Mignonette, which were cast away in a storm some 1,600 miles (2,600 km) from the Cape of Good Hope. After several days one of the crew, a seventeen year old cabin boy, fell unconscious due to a combination of the famine and drinking seawater. The others (one possibly objecting) decided then to kill him and eat him. They were picked up four days later. Two of the three survivors were found guilty of murder. A significant outcome of this case was that necessity was determined to be no defence against a charge of murder.
Roger Casement writing to a consular colleague in Lisbon on 3 August 1903 from Lake Mantumba in the Congo Free State said: "The people round here are all cannibals. You never saw such a weird looking lot in your life. There are also dwarfs (called Batwas) in the forest who are even worse cannibals than the taller human environment. They eat man flesh raw! It's a fact." Casement then added how assailants would "bring down a dwarf on the way home, for the marital cooking pot...The Dwarfs, as I say, dispense with cooking pots and eat and drink their human prey fresh cut on the battlefield while the blood is still warm and running. These are not fairy tales my dear Cowper but actual gruesome reality in the heart of this poor, benighted savage land." (National Library of Ireland, MS 36,201/3)
[edit] Modern era
[edit] World War II
Many instances of cannibalism by necessity were recorded during World War II. For example, during the 872-day Siege of Leningrad, reports of cannibalism began to appear in the winter of 1941–1942, after all birds, rats and pets were eaten by survivors. Leningrad police even formed a special division to combat cannibalism.[67][68] Following the Soviet victory at Stalingrad it was found that some German soldiers in the besieged city, cut off from supplies, resorted to cannibalism.[69]
Later, in February 1943, roughly 100,000 German soldiers were taken prisoner of war (POW). Almost all of them were sent to POW camps in Siberia or Central Asia where, due to being chronically underfed by their Soviet captors, many resorted to cannibalism. Fewer than 5,000 of the prisoners taken at Stalingrad survived captivity. The majority, however, died early in their imprisonment due to exposure or sickness brought on by conditions in the surrounded army before the surrender.[70]
In parts of Eastern Europe during World War II, there are anecdotal accounts of people finding human fingernails in sausage suggesting the foodstuffs were composed of human flesh.
Many written reports and testimonies collected by the Australian War Crimes Section of the Tokyo tribunal, and investigated by prosecutor William Webb (the future Judge-in-Chief), indicate that Japanese soldiers, in many parts of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, committed acts of cannibalism against Allied prisoners of war. According to historian Yuki Tanaka: "cannibalism was often a systematic activity conducted by whole squads and under the command of officers".[71]
In some cases, flesh was cut from living people. An Indian POW, Lance Naik Hatam Ali (later a citizen of Pakistan), testified that in New Guinea: "the Japanese started selecting prisoners and every day one prisoner was taken out and killed and eaten by the soldiers. I personally saw this happen and about 100 prisoners were eaten at this place by the Japanese. The remainder of us were taken to another spot 50 miles [80 km] away where 10 prisoners died of sickness. At this place, the Japanese again started selecting prisoners to eat. Those selected were taken to a hut where their flesh was cut from their bodies while they were alive and they were thrown into a ditch where they later died."[72]
Another well-documented case occurred in Chichijima in February 1945, when Japanese soldiers killed and consumed five American airmen. This case was investigated in 1947 in a war crimes trial, and of 30 Japanese soldiers prosecuted, five (Maj. Matoba, Gen. Tachibana, Adm. Mori, Capt. Yoshii, and Dr. Teraki) were found guilty and hanged.[73] In his book Flyboys: A True Story of Courage, James Bradley details several instances of cannibalism of World War II Allied prisoners by their Japanese captors. The author claims that this included not only ritual cannibalization of the livers of freshly-killed prisoners, but also the cannibalization-for-sustenance of living prisoners over the course of several days, amputating limbs only as needed to keep the meat fresh.[74]
[edit] Other cases
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- The Leopard Society were a West African society active into mid-1900s that practiced cannibalism. They were centred in Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire. The Leopard men would dress in leopard skins, waylaying travelers with sharp claw-like weapons in the form of leopards' claws and teeth.[75] The victims' flesh would be cut from their bodies and distributed to members of the society.[76] In Tanganyika, the Lion men committed an estimated 200 murders in a single three-month period.[77]
- During the 1930s, multiple acts of cannibalism were reported from Ukraine and Russia's Volga, South Siberian and Kuban regions during the Holodomor.[78]
- Cannibalism was proven to have occurred in China during the Great Leap Forward, when rural China was hit hard by drought and famine.[79][80][81][82][83] Reports of cannibalism during the Cultural Revolution in China have also emerged. These reports show that cannibalism was practiced for ideological purposes.[84][85]
- Prior to 1931, New York Times reporter William Buehler Seabrook, allegedly in the interests of research, obtained from a hospital intern at the Sorbonne a chunk of human meat from the body of a healthy human killed by accident, and cooked and ate it. He reported that, "It was like good, fully developed veal, not young, but not yet beef. It was very definitely like that, and it was not like any other meat I had ever tasted. It was so nearly like good, fully developed veal that I think no person with a palate of ordinary, normal sensitiveness could distinguish it from veal. It was mild, good meat with no other sharply defined or highly characteristic taste such as for instance, goat, high game, and pork have. The steak was slightly tougher than prime veal, a little stringy, but not too tough or stringy to be agreeably edible. The roast, from which I cut and ate a central slice, was tender, and in color, texture, smell as well as taste, strengthened my certainty that of all the meats we habitually know, veal is the one meat to which this meat is accurately comparable."[86][87]
- The Soviet writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, in his novel The Gulag Archipelago, describes cases of cannibalism in the twentieth-century USSR. Of the famine in Povolzhie (1921–1922) he writes: "That horrible famine was up to cannibalism, up to consuming children by their own parents — the famine, which Russia had never known even in Time of Troubles [in 1601–1603]...".[88] He says of the Siege of Leningrad (1941–1944): "Those who consumed human flesh, or dealt with the human liver trading from dissecting rooms... were accounted as the political criminals...".[89] And of the building of Northern Railway Prisoners Camp ("SevZhelDorLag") Solzhenitsyn writes: "An ordinary hard working political prisoner almost could not survive at that penal camp. In the camp SevZhelDorLag (chief: colonel Klyuchkin) in 1946–47 there were many cases of cannibalism: they cut human bodies, cooked and ate."[90]
- The Soviet journalist Yevgenia Ginzburg, former long-term political prisoner, who spent time in the Soviet prisons, Gulag camps and settlements from 1938 to 1955, describes in her memoir book "Harsh Route" (or "Steep Route") the case, which she was directly involved in late 1940s, after she had been moved to the prisoners' hospital.[91] "...The chief warder shows me the black smoked pot, filled with some food: 'I need your medical expertize regarding this meat.' I look into the pot, and hardly hold vomiting. The fibers of that meat are very small, and don't resemble me anything I have seen before. The skin on some pieces bristles with black hair (...) A former smith from Poltava, Kulesh worked together with Centurashvili. At this time, Centurashvili was only one month away from being discharged from the camp (...) And suddenly he surprisingly disappeared. The wardens looked around the hills, stated Kulesh's evidence, that last time Kulesh had seen his workmate near the fireplace, Kulesh went out to work and Centurashvili left to warm himself more; but when Kulesh returned to the fireplace, Centurashvili had vanished; who knows, maybe he got frozen somewhere in snow, he was a weak guy (...) The wardens searched for two more days, and then assumed that it was an escape case, though they wondered why, since his imprisonment period was almost over (...) The crime was there. Approaching the fireplace, Kulesh killed Centurashvili with an axe, burned his clothes, then dismembered him and hid the pieces in snow, in different places, putting specific marks on each burial place. (...) Just yesterday, one body part was found under two crossed logs."
- When Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 crashed into the Andes on October 13, 1972, the survivors resorted to eating the deceased during their 72 days in the mountains. Their story was later recounted in the books Alive: The Story of the Andes Survivors and Miracle in the Andes as well as the film Alive, by Frank Marshall, and the documentaries Alive: 20 Years Later (1993) and Stranded: I've Come from a Plane that Crashed in the Mountains (2008).
- Cannibalism was reported by the journalist Neil Davis during the South East Asian wars of the 1960s and 1970s. Davis reported that Cambodian troops ritually ate portions of the slain enemy, typically the liver. However he, and many refugees, also report that cannibalism was practiced non-ritually when there was no food to be found. This usually occurred when towns and villages were under Khmer Rouge control, and food was strictly rationed, leading to widespread starvation. Any civilian caught participating in cannibalism would have been immediately executed.[92]
- Cannibalism has been reported in several recent African conflicts, including the Second Congo War, and the civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone. A U.N. human rights expert reported in July 2007 that sexual atrocities against Congolese women go 'far beyond rape' and include sexual slavery, forced incest, and cannibalism.[93] This may be done in desperation, as during peacetime cannibalism is much less frequent;[94] at other times, it is consciously directed at certain groups believed to be relatively helpless, such as Congo Pygmies, even considered subhuman by some other Congolese.[95] It is also reported by some that witch doctors sometimes use the body parts of children in their medicine.[citation needed] In the 1970s the Ugandan dictator Idi Amin was reputed to practice cannibalism.[96][97]
- The self declared Emperor of the Central African Republic, Jean-Bédel Bokassa (Emperor Bokassa I), was tried on 24 October 1986 for several cases of cannibalism although he was never convicted.[98][99] Between 17 April and 19 April a number of elementary school students were arrested after they had protested against wearing the expensive, government-required school uniforms. Around one-hundred were killed. Bokassa is said to have participated in the massacre, beating some of the children to death with his cane and allegedly ate some of his victims.[100]
- The Aghoris of northern India consume the flesh of the dead floated in the Ganges in pursuit of immortality and supernatural powers. Members of the Aghori drink from human skulls and practice cannibalism in the belief that eating human flesh confers spiritual and physical benefits, such as prevention of aging.[101][102][103]
- It has been reported by defectors and refugees that, at the height of the famine in 1996, cannibalism was sometimes practiced in North Korea.[104]
- Médecins Sans Frontières, the international medical charity, supplied photographic and other documentary evidence of ritualized cannibal feasts among the participants in Liberia's internecine strife in the 1980s to representatives of Amnesty International who were on a fact-finding mission to the neighboring state of Guinea. However, Amnesty International declined to publicize this material; the Secretary-General of the organization, Pierre Sane, said at the time in an internal communication that "what they do with the bodies after human rights violations are committed is not part of our mandate or concern". The existence of cannibalism on a wide scale in Liberia was subsequently verified in video documentaries by Journeyman Pictures of London.[105]
- Dorangel Vargas known as "El comegente", Spanish for "maneater", was a serial killer and cannibal in Venezuela. Vargas killed and ate at least 10 men in a period of two years preceding his arrest in 1999.
- Another serial killer, Jeffrey Dahmer of the United States, became notorious for murdering his victims and then eating their body parts before his arrest and imprisonment in 1991. Traces of human flesh and bones were found on pots and pans inside his home.
- In March 2001 in Germany, Armin Meiwes posted an Internet ad asking for "a well built 18 to 30 year old to be slaughtered and consumed". The ad was answered by Bernd Jürgen Brandes. After killing Brandes and eating parts of his body, Meiwes was convicted of manslaughter and later, murder. The song "Mein Teil" by Rammstein and the song "Eaten" by Bloodbath is based on this case.
- In February 2004, a 39 year old Briton named Peter Bryan from East London was caught after he killed and ate his friend. He has been arrested for murder before, but was released shortly before this act was committed.[106]
- In September 2006, Australian television crews from 60 Minutes and Today Tonight attempted to rescue a six-year-old boy whom they believed would be ritually cannibalized by his tribe, the Korowai, from West Papua, Indonesia.[107]
- On August 14, 2007, a member of the far-left Maoist Naxalite group engaged in cannibalism. In the Indian state of Orissa, the leftist killed a police informant and consumed his flesh in order to terrorize the local villagers against reporting on Naxalite criminal activities[108].
- On September 14, 2007, a man named Özgür Dengiz was captured in Ankara, the Turkish capital, after killing and eating a man. Dengiz in his initial testimony said he "enjoyed" eating human flesh. He frequently burst into long laughing sessions during the testimony, police officers said. In 1997, he was jailed for murder of a friend, when he was 17, but he got out of jail on parole after serving three years. Dengiz said he did not know Cafer Er, his 55 year old victim, who worked as a garbage collector. Dengiz shot Er in the head with a firearm, because he felt Er was making the area "too crowded." After cutting slices of flesh from his victim's body, Dengiz distributed the rest to stray dogs on the street, according to his own testimony. He ate some of Er's flesh raw on his way home. Dengiz, who lived with his parents arrived at the family house and placed the remaining parts of Er's body in the fridge without saying a word to his parents. Also in his testimony he said, "I have no regrets, my conscience is free. I constantly thought of killing. I had dreams where I was being sacrificed. I decided to kill, to sacrifice others in place of me."[109][110]
- In January 2008, Milton Blahyi, 37, confessed being part of human sacrifices which "included the killing of an innocent child and plucking out the heart, which was divided into pieces for us to eat." He fought versus Liberian president Charles Taylor's militia.[111]
- During Charles Taylor's war crimes trial on March 13, 2008, Joseph Marzah, Taylor's chief of operations and head of Taylor's alleged "death squad", accused Taylor of ordering his soldiers to commit acts of cannibalism against enemies, including peacekeepers and United Nations personnel.[112]
- In Tanzania in 2008, President Kikwete publicly condemned witch doctors for killing people with albinism for their body parts which are thought to bring good luck. Twenty-five albinic Tanzanians have been murdered since March 2007.[113][114]
- In a documentary by Colombian Journalist Hollman Morris, a demobilized paramilitary confessed that during the mass killings that take place in Colombia's rural areas, many of them performed cannibalism. He also confesses that they were told to drink the blood of their victims on the belief that it would make them want to kill more.[115]
- In November 2008, a group of 33 illegal immigrants from the Dominican Republic who were en route to Puerto Rico were forced to resort to cannibalism after they were lost at sea for over 15 days before being rescued by a U.S. Coast Guard patrol boat.[116]
- As of February 9, 2009, five members of the Kulina tribe in Brazil were wanted by Brazilian authorities on the charge of murdering, butchering and eating a farmer in a ritual act of cannibalism.[117]
- The rap artist Big Lurch was convicted of the murder and partial consumption of an acquaintance while both were under the influence of PCP.
- In October 2009, a vengeful father in Naawan, Misamis Oriental in the Philippines killed his son's rival, carved out meat from his body and shared it with his drinking buddies.[118]
- November 14th 2009, three homeless men in Moscow, Russia were arrested for killed and eating the parts of a twenty-five year old man. The remaining parts were then sold to a local pie/kebab house.
[edit] See also
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cannibalism |
- Albert Fish
- Alferd Packer
- Androphagi
- Armin Meiwes
- Asmat people
- Cannibalism in popular culture
- Essex, a sunken whaleship whose sailors resorted to cannibalism for survival
- Hannibal Lecter
- Homo antecessor
- Issei Sagawa
- Manifesto Antropófago
- Manhunter (movie series)
- Placentophagy
- Self-cannibalism
- Soylent Green
- The Texas Chain Saw Massacre
- Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy
- Vorarephilia
[edit] References
- ^ "Cannibalism Definition". Dictionary.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cannibalism?r=66.
- ^ Cannibalism in Liberia war - Seen in front of camera and commander boasts about it
- ^ UN call against cannibalism on the BBC website.
- ^ "Sleeping with Cannibals | Travel | Smithsonian Magazine". Smithsonianmag.com. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/cannibals.html. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
- ^ a b c d e "cannibalism (human behaviour) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/92701/cannibalism. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
- ^ A cannibal practicing tribe by the BBC recorded on YouTube
- ^ "Neanderthals Were Cannibals, Bones Show". Sciencemag.org. 1999-10-01. doi:. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/286/5437/18b?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=Archaeologists+Rediscover+Cannibals&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
- ^ "Archaeologists Rediscover Cannibals". Sciencemag.org. 1997-08-01. doi:. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/277/5326/635?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=Archaeologists+Rediscover+Cannibals&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
- ^ "Cannibalism Normal For Early Humans?". News.nationalgeographic.com. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/04/0410_030410_cannibal.html. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
- ^ "The edible dead". Britarch.ac.uk. http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba59/feat1.shtml. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
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- ^ See Cannibalism - Some Hidden Truths for an example documenting escaped convicts in Australia who initially blamed natives, but later confessed to conducting the practice themselves out of desperate hunger.
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- ^ "Melanesia Historical and Geographical: the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides", Southern Cross n°1, London: 1950
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- ^ "The Wreck of the Whaleship Essex". Bbc.co.uk. http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/alabaster/A671492. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
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[edit] External links
- All about Cannibalism: The Ancient Taboo in Modern Times (Cannibalism Psychology) at CrimeLibrary.com
- The Straight Dope Notes arguing that routine cannibalism is myth
- Did a mob of angry Dutch kill and eat their prime minister? (from The Straight Dope)
- Harry J. Brown, 'Hans Staden among the Tupinambas.'
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