गैलिलियो फिर मारा गया!
पलाश विश्वास
गैलिलियो फिर मारा गया!
हां जी,एकदम सही पढ़ रहे हैं आप।यह भारत निर्माण,आनलाइन जीवन,बहुमंजिली उपभोक्ता संस्कृति और उदारीकरण निजीकरण ग्लोबीकरण का असली चेहरा धर्मोन्मादी है,जो खूंखार वर्चस्ववादी एकाधिकारवादी और फासीवादी नाजी चरित्र का पर्याय है।हम वही अंध राष्ट्रवाद जी रहे हैं।खा रहे हैं।पी रहे हैं।ओढ़ रहे हैं।
जी हां, महाराष्ट्र के जाने माने समाजसेवी डॉ. नरेंद्र दाभोलकर की पुणे में गोली मारकर हत्या कर दी गई है। दाभोलकर अंधविश्वास निर्मूलन समिति के अध्यक्ष और संस्थापक भी थे। दाभोलकर को बदमाशों ने उस वक्त गोली मारी जब वह सुबह टहलने निकले थे।
डॉ. दाभोलकर अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन बिल पर एक प्रेस कॉन्फ्रेंस करने वाले थे। महाराष्ट्र सरकार जल्द ही इस पर बिल लाने वाली है। हमलावरों की उम्र 25 से 26 साल बताई जा रही है।
नरेंद्र दाभोलकर महाराष्ट्र की मशहूर मैगजीन साधना के 16 साल से संपादक थे।
इस खुले बाजार के वधस्थल में विविकसम्मत वैज्ञानिक मानवतावाद सुधारों की कोरपोरेटभाषा के व्याकरण के विरुद्ध है।
पांच सितारा आईपीएली कैसिनिओ चमत्कारी चकाचौंध के इस महातिलिस्म में जब भी बेनकाब कर दी जाती है जड़ता और अंध आस्था की अंधकूप,तब तब फिर फिर लौट आता है अंध तम मध्ययुग।ज्
ज्ञान,विज्ञान,मनुष्यौर प्रकृति के विरुद्ध चमक उठती है हत्यारी तलवारें और मारा जाता है फिर कोई गैलिलियो।
हां,जी प्रचलित धर्मोन्मादी राष्ट्रवाद कि विधायें तोड़ने के अपराध में ही मारे गये हैं नरेंद्र दाभोलकर।
अश्वमेधी राजसूय यज्ञ में स्वतंत्र और संप्रभु नागरिकों के लिए मृत्युदंड के अलावा कोई दूसरा विकल्प है ही नहीं।
इल बायोमेट्रिक डिजिटल रिलायंस डाउ कोला मैकडोनाल्ड पैस्को वेदांत देश में अब विचारों पर प्रतिबंध है।
ख्वाबों पर पहरा है।
सत्यमेव जयते का जयते का अर्थ असत्यमेव जयते।
न्याय का अर्थ अन्याय है।
समता का अर्थ असमता है।
ज्ञान का अर्थ अज्ञान है।
अर्थ का अर्थ है अनर्थ।
विकास का अर्थ है विनाश।
सुधार का अर्थ है सत्यानाश।
विलोम शब्द ही आज के सामाजिक यथार्थ को परिभाषित कर सकते हैं।
प्रतिलोम अनुलोम विचारों के लिए कोई स्थान नहीं है।
अभिव्यक्ति एक अवसरवादी रणनीति है।
दिलोदिमाग से जो भी बोले,मौत का सजा का हकदार वह।
गैलिलियो ने इस व्याकरण को सबसे पहले तोड़ा था।
मनुष्यता और सभ्यता के इतिहास में हर युग में गैलेलियो जनमते हैं और मारे जाते हैं।जैसे मारे गये दाभोलकर।
विडंबना देखिये,हम अब भी सुरक्षित है और सकुशल है मूसलाधार सुनामी में भी।
गैलिलियो/ गैलीलियो गैलिली
यूरोप में एक समय था जब रोम और यूनान की सभ्यताएं अपने पतन की ओर अग्रसर थीं। उसके बाद पूरा महाद्वीप अज्ञानता के अन्धकार में छुप गया। फ़िर समय ने करवट ली और साइंस और तकनीकी प्रगति ने यूरोप को इस अन्धकार से निकालकर रौशनी की ओर मोड़ा। इस रौशनी को पैदा करने में सूर्य की तरह जिस वैज्ञानिक ने योगदान दिया उसे गैलिलियो गैलीली के नाम से जाना जाता है।
आधुनिक इटली के पीसा नामक शहर (पीसा की टेढ़ी मीनार के लिए प्रसिद्ध) में 15 फरवरी 1564 को गैलीलियो गैलिली का जन्म हुआ। उनके पिता उन्हें चिकित्सा विज्ञान पढ़ाना चाहते थे, किंतु उनका शौक़ गणित और फिलोसफी में था। उन्होंने चिकित्सा की डिग्री हासिल किए बिना पीसा छोड़ दिया था।
अधिकांश लोग गैलीलियो को एक खगोलविज्ञानी के रूप में याद करते हैं जिसने दूरबीन में सुधार कर उसे अधिक शक्तिशाली तथा खगोलीय प्रेक्षणों के लिए उपयुक्त बनाया और साथ ही अपने प्रेक्षणों से ऐसे चौंकाने वाले तथ्य उजागर किए जिसने खगोल विज्ञान को नई दिशा दी और आधुनिक खगोल विज्ञान की नींव रखी। पर बहुत कम लोग यह जानते हैं कि खगोलविज्ञानी होने के अलावा वे एक कुशल गणितज्ञ, भौतिकीविद् और दार्शनिक भी थे जिसने यूरोप की वैज्ञानिक क्रांति में महत्त्वपूर्ण योगदान दिया। इसीलिए गैलीलियो को 'आधुनिक खगोल विज्ञान के जनक', 'आधुनिक भौतिकी का पिता' या 'विज्ञान का पिता' के रूप में संबोधित किया जाता है।
गैलीलियो ने भौतिक विज्ञान में गतिकी के समीकरण स्थापित किए। उनका जड़त्व का नियम जगप्रसिद्ध है। उन्होंने पीसा की मीनार के अपने प्रसिद्ध प्रयोग द्वारा सिद्ध किया कि वस्तुओं के गिरने की गति उनके द्रव्यमान पर निर्भर नहीं करती। उन्होंने पहली बार सिद्ध किया की निर्वात में प्रक्षेप्य का पथ पर्वलयकार होता है।
गैलिलियो ने उच्च कोटि का कम्पास बनाया जो समुंद्री यात्रियों के लिए काफ़ी उपयोगी सिद्ध हुआ। उसके अन्य आविष्कारों में थर्मामीटर, सूक्ष्मदर्शी, पेंडुलम घड़ी इत्यादि हैं। भौतिक नियमों के बारे में बताया की वे उन सभी निकायों में, जो नियत गति से चलते हैं, समान रूप से लागू होते हैं। यह सापेक्षता के सिद्धांत की प्रारंभिक झलक थी।
गैलीलियो को सूक्ष्म गणितीय विश्लेषण करने का कौशल संभवत: अपने पिता विन्सैन्जो गैलिली से विरासत में आनुवांशिक रूप में तथा कुछ उनकी कार्यशैली को क़रीब से देख कर मिला होगा। विन्सैन्जो एक जाने-माने संगीत विशेषज्ञ थे और 'ल्यूट' नामक वाद्य यंत्र बजाते थे जिसने बाद में गिटार और बैन्जो का रूप ले लिया। उन्होंने भौतिकी में पहली बार ऐसे प्रयोग किए जिनसे 'अरैखिक संबंध' का प्रतिपादन हुआ। तब यह ज्ञात था कि किसी वाद्य यंत्र की तनी हुई डोर (या तार) के तनाव और उससे निकलने वाली आवृत्ति में एक संबंध होता है, आवृत्ति तनाव के वर्ग के समानुपाती होती है। इस तरह संगीत के सिद्धांत में गणित की थोड़ी बहुत पैठ थी। इससे प्रेरित होकर गैलीलियो ने पिता के कार्य को आगे बढ़ाया। माना जाता है कि गैलिलियो ने ही पहली बार कहा कि सभी प्राकृतिक नियम गणितीय नियमों का पालन करते हैं। उसने एक जगह लिखा, 'फिलोसोफी की इस विशाल किताब को ब्रह्माण्ड ने लिखी है और यह गणितीय भाषा में है (भगवान की भाषा गणित है)। इसके पात्र वृत्त, त्रिभुज और दूसरे ज्यामिति आकार हैं।
गैलीलियो ने दर्शन शास्त्र का भी गहन अध्ययन किया था साथ ही वे धार्मिक प्रवृत्ति के भी थे। पर वे अपने प्रयोगों के परिणामों को कैसे नकार सकते थे जो पुरानी मान्यताओं के विरुद्ध जाते थे और वे इनकी पूरी ईमानदारी के साथ व्याख्या करते थे। उनकी चर्च के प्रति निष्ठा के बावजूद उनका ज्ञान और विवेक उन्हें किसी भी पुरानी अवधारणा को बिना प्रयोग और गणित के तराजू में तोले मानने से रोकता था। चर्च ने इसे अपनी अवज्ञा समझा। पर गैलीलियो की इस सोच ने मनुष्य की चिंतन प्रक्रिया में नया मोड़ ला दिया। स्वयं गैलीलियो अपने विचारों को बदलने को तैयार हो जाते यदि उनके प्रयोगों के परिणाम ऐसा इशारा करते। अपने प्रयोगों को करने के लिए गैलीलियो ने लंबाई और समय के मानक तैयार किए ताकि यही प्रयोग अन्यत्र जब दूसरी प्रयोगशालाओं में दुहराए जाएं तो परिणामों की पुनरावृत्ति द्वारा उनका सत्यापन किया जा सके।
गैलीलियो ने प्रकाश की गति नापने का भी प्रयास किया और तत्संबंधी प्रयोग किए। गैलीलियो व उनका एक सहायक दो भिन्न पर्वत शिखरों पर कपाट लगी लालटेन लेकर रात में चढ़ गए। सहायक को निर्देश दिया गया था कि जैसे ही उसे गैलीलियो की लालटेन का प्रकाश दिखे उसे अपनी लालटेन का कपाट खोल देना था। गैलीलियो को अपने कपाट खोलने व सहायक की लालटेन का प्रकाश दिखने के बीच का समय अंतराल मापना था- पहाड़ों के बीच की दूरी उन्हें ज्ञात थी। इस तरह उन्होंने प्रकाश की गति ज्ञात की।
पर गैलीलियो – गैलीलियो ठहरे – वे इतने से कहां संतुष्ट होने वाले थे। अपने प्रायोगिक निष्कर्ष को दुहराना जो था। इस बार उन्होंने ऐसी दो पहाड़ियों का चयन किया जिनके बीच की दूरी कहीं ज़्यादा थी। पर आश्चर्य, इस बार भी समय अंतराल पहले जितना ही आया। गैलीलियो इस निष्कर्ष पर पहुंचे कि प्रकाश को चलने में लग रहा समय उनके सहायक की प्रतिक्रिया के समय से बहुत कम होगा और इस प्रकार प्रकाश का वेग नापना उनकी युक्ति की संवेदनशीलता के परे था। पर गैलीलियो द्वारा बृहस्पति के चंद्रमाओं के बृहस्पति की छाया में आ जाने से उन पर पड़ने वाले ग्रहण के प्रेक्षण से ओल रोमर नामक हॉलैंड के खगोलविज्ञानी को एक विचार आया। उन्हें लगा कि इन प्रेक्षणों के द्वारा प्रकाश का वेग ज्ञात किया जा सकता है। सन् 1675 में उन्होंने यह प्रयोग किया जो इस तरह का प्रथम प्रयास था। इस प्रकार यांत्रिक बलों पर किए अपने मुख्य कार्य के अतिरिक्त गैलीलियो के इन अन्य कार्यों ने उनके प्रभाव क्षेत्र को कहीं अधिक विस्तृत कर दिया था जिससे लंबे काल तक प्रबुद्ध लोग प्रभावित होते रहे।
गैलीलियो ने आज से बहुत पहले गणित, सैद्धांतिक भौतिकी और प्रायोगिक भौतिकी के परस्पर संबंध को समझ लिया था। परवलय या पैराबोला का अध्ययन करते हुए वे इस निष्कर्ष पर पहुंचे थे कि एक समान त्वरण (uniform acceleration) की अवस्था में पृथ्वी पर फेंका कोई पिंड एक परवलयाकार मार्ग पर चल कर वापस पृथ्वी पर आ गिरेगा – बशर्ते हवा के घर्षण का बल उपेक्षणीय हो। यही नहीं, उन्होंने यह भी कहा कि उनका यह सिद्धांत जरूरी नहीं कि किसी ग्रह जैसे पिंड पर भी लागू हो। उन्हें इस बात का ध्यान था कि उनके मापन में घर्षण (friction) तथा अन्य बलों के कारण अवश्य त्रुटियां आई होंगी जो उनके सिद्धांत की सही गणितीय व्याख्या में बाधा उत्पन्न कर रहीं थीं। उनकी इसी अंतर्दृष्टि के लिए प्रसिद्ध भौतिकीविद्आइंस्टाइन ने उन्हें 'आधुनिक विज्ञान का पिता' की पदवी दे डाली। कथन में कितनी सचाई है पता नहीं – पर माना जाता है कि गैलीलियो ने पीसा की टेढ़ी मीनार से अलग-अलग संहति (mass) की गेंदें गिराने का प्रयोग किया और यह पाया उनके द्वारा गिरने में लगे समय का उनकी संहति से कोई सम्बन्ध नहीं था – सब समान समय ले रहीं थीं। ये बात तब तक छाई अरस्तू की विचारधारा के एकदम विपरीत थी – क्योंकि अरस्तू के अनुसार अधिक भारी वस्तुएं तेजी से गिरनी चाहिए। बाद में उन्होंने यही प्रयोग गेदों को अवनत तलों पर लुढ़का कर दुहराए तथा पुन: उसी निष्कर्ष पर पहुंचे।
गैलीलियो ने त्वरण के लिए सही गणितीय समीकरण खोजा। उन्होंने कहा कि अगर कोई स्थिर पिंड समान त्वरण के कारण गतिशील होता है तो उसकी चलित दूरी समय अंतराल के वर्ग के समानुपाती होगी।
S = ut + ½ft2, if u = 0 then S = ½ft2 or S ∝ t2
गैलीलियो ने ही 'जड़त्व का सिद्धांत' हमें दिया जिसके अनुसार 'किसी समतल पर चलायमान पिंड तब तक उसी दिशा व वेग से गति करेगा जब तक उसे छेड़ा न जाए'। बाद में यह जाकर न्यूटन के गति के सिद्धांतों का पहला सिद्धांत बना। पीसा के विशाल कैथेड्रल (चर्च) में झूलते झूमर को देख कर उन्हें ख्याल आया क्यों न इसका दोलन काल नापा जाए – उन्होंने अपनी नब्ज की धप-धप की मदद से यह कार्य किया – और इस प्रकार सरल लोलक का सिद्धांत बाहर आया – कि लोलक का आवर्त्तकाल उसके आयाम (amplitude) पर निर्भर नहीं करता (यह बात केवल छोटे आयाम पर लागू होती है – पर एक घड़ी का निर्माण करने के लिए इतनी परिशुद्धता काफ़ी है)। सन् 1632 में उन्होंने ज्वार-भाटे की व्याख्या पृथ्वी की गति द्वारा की। इसमें उन्होंने समुद्र की तलहटी की बनावट, इसके ज्वार की तरंगों की ऊंचाई तथा आने के समय में संबंध की चर्चा की – हालांकि यह सिद्धांत सही नहीं पाया गया। बाद में केपलर व अन्य वैज्ञानिकों ने इसे सुधारा और सही कारण – चंद्रमा को बताया।
जिसे आज हम आपेक्षिकता (Relativity) का सिद्धांत कहते हैं उसकी नींव भी गैलीलियो ने ही डाली थी। उन्होंने कहा है 'भौतिकी के नियम वही रहते हैं चाहे कोई पिंड स्थिर हो या समान वेग से एक सरल रेखा में गतिमान। कोई भी अवस्था न परम स्थिर या परम चल अवस्था हो सकती है'। इसी ने बाद में न्यूटन के नियमों का आधारगत ढांचा दिया। सन् 1609 में गैलीलियो को दूरबीन के बारे में पता चला जिसका हालैंड में आविष्कार हो चुका था। केवल उसका विवरण सुनकर उन्होंने उससे भी कहीं अधिक परिष्कृत और शक्तिशाली दूरबीन स्वयं बना ली। 25 अगस्त 1609 को गैलिलियो ने अपने आधुनिक टेलिस्कोप का सार्वजनिक प्रदर्शन किया। फिर शुरू हुआ खगोलीय खोजों का एक अद्भुत अध्याय। गैलीलियो ने चांद को देखा उसके ऊबड़-खाबड़ गङ्ढे देखे। फिर उन्होंने दूरबीन चमकीले शुक्र ग्रह पर साधी – एक और नई खोज – शुक्र ग्रह भी (चंद्रमा की तरह) कला (phases) का प्रदर्शन करता है। जब उन्होंने बृहस्पति ग्रह को अपनी दूरबीन से निहारा, फिर जो देखा और उससे उन्होंने जो निष्कर्ष निकाला उसने सौरमंडल को ठीक-ठीक समझने में बड़ी मदद की। गैलीलियो ने देखा की बृहस्पति ग्रह के पास तीन छोटे-छोटे 'तारे' जैसे दिखाई दे रहे हैं। कुछ घंटे बाद जब दुबारा उसे देखा तो वहां तीन नहीं बल्कि चार 'तारे' दिखाई दिए। गैलीलियो समझ गए कि बृहस्पति ग्रह का अपना एक अलग संसार है। उसके गिर्द घूम रहे ये पिंड अन्य ग्रहों की तरह पृथ्वी की परिक्रमा करने के लिए बाध्य नहीं हैं। उन्होंने अपने टेलिस्कोप से जुपिटर ग्रह के चार चंद्रमाओं की खोज की। यहीं से टोलेमी और अरस्तू की परिकल्पनाओं की नीव हिल गई। जिनमें ग्रह और सूर्य सभी पिंडों की गतियों का केन्द्र पृथ्वी को बताया गया था। गैलीलियो की इस खोज से सौरमडंल के सूर्य केंद्रित सिद्धांत को बहुत बल मिला। हालांकि निकोलस कॉपरनिकस गैलीलियो से पहले ही यह कह चुके थे कि ग्रह सूर्य की परिक्रमा करते हैं न कि पृथ्वी की, पर इसे मानने वाले बहुत कम थे। हालांकि यह परिकल्पना भारतीय तथा मुस्लिम वैज्ञानिकों में पहले से मौजूद थी किंतु योरोपियन चर्च इससे सहमत न होकर अरस्तू की थ्योरी पर ही विश्वास रखते थे।
इसके साथ ही गैलीलियो ने कॉपरनिकस के सिद्धांत को खुला समर्थन देना शुरू कर दिया। ये बात तत्कालीन वैज्ञानिक और धार्मिक मान्यताओं के विरुद्ध जाती थी। इस कारण गैलिलियो के कथन को कैथोलिक चर्चों के विरोध का सामना करना पड़ा। गैलिलियो ने खंडन करते हुए कहा की उसने कहीं भी बाइबिल के विरुद्ध कुछ नहीं कहा है। गैलीलियो के जीवनकाल में इसे उनकी भूल ही समझा गया। सन् 1633 में चर्च ने गैलीलियो को आदेश दिया कि वे सार्वजनिक रूप से कहें कि ये उनकी बड़ी भूल है। उन्होंने ऐसा किया भी। फिर भी गैलीलियो को अपने जीवन के अन्तिम दिन रोमन साम्राज्य की कैद में बिताने पड़े। बाद में उनके बिगड़ते स्वास्थ्य के मद्देनजर सज़ा को गृह-कैद में तब्दील कर दिया गया। अपने जीवन का अंतिम दिन भी उन्होंने इसी कैद में गुज़ारा। कहीं वर्ष 1992 में जाकर वैटिकन शहर स्थित ईसाई धर्म की सर्वोच्च संस्था ने यह स्वीकारा कि गैलीलियो के मामले में उनसे ग़लती हुई थी। यानी उन्हें तीन सौ से अधिक साल लग गए असलियत को समझने और स्वीकारने में।
जब गैलीलियो पीसा के विश्वविद्यालय में खगोल विज्ञान के प्राध्यापक थे तो उन्हें अपने शिष्यों को यह पढ़ाना पढ़ता था कि ग्रह पृथ्वी की परिक्रमा करते हैं। बाद में जब वे पदुवा नामक विश्वविद्यालय में गए तब उन्हें जाकर निकोलस कॉपरनिकस के नए सिद्धांत का पता चला था। खुद अपनी दूरबीन द्वारा किए गए प्रेक्षणों से (विशेषकर बृहस्पति के चंद्रमा देख कर) वे अब पूरी तरह आश्वस्त हो चुके थे कि कॉपरनिकस का सूर्य-केंद्रित सिद्धांत ही सौरमंडल की सही व्याख्या करता है। बहत्तर साल की अवस्था को पहुंचते-पहुंचते गैलीलियो अपनी आंखों की रोशनी पूरी तरह खो चुके थे। बहुत से लोग यह मानते हैं कि उनका अंधापन अपनी दूरबीन द्वारा सन् 1613 में सूर्य को देखने (जिसके द्वारा उन्होंने सौर-कलंक या सनस्पॉट्स भी खोजे थे) के कारण उत्पन्न हुआ होगा। पर जांच करने पर पता चला कि ऐसा मोतियाबिंद के आ जाने और आंख की ग्लौकोमा नामक बीमारी के कारण हुआ होगा।
सन् 1642 में गृह-कैद झेल रहे गैलीलियो की 8 जनवरी को मृत्यु हो गई। कुछ मास बाद उसी वर्ष न्यूटन का जन्म हुआ। इस तरह कह सकते हैं कि तब एक युग का अंत और एक और नए क्रांतिकारी युग का शुभारंभ हुआ। इस तरह गैलीलियों ने योरोप की वैज्ञानिक प्रगति में मसीहा की तरह कार्य किया।
महाराष्ट्र में 'अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन कानून' लाने की कोशिशों में जुटे नरेंद्र दाभोलकर को दक्षिणपंथी संगठनों की तरफ से जो आखिरी धमकी दी गई थी उसमें कहा गया था 'गांधी को याद करो: याद करो हमने उसके साथ क्या किया था'। दाभोलकर की अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन समिति पिछले 14 सालों से इस बिल के लिए कैंपेनिंग कर रही है।
मंगलवार को अज्ञात हमलावरों ने सोशल ऐक्टिविस्ट नरेंद्र दाभोलकर की गोली मारकर हत्या कर दी थी। समाचार एजेंसी पीटीआई ने पुलिस सूत्रों के हवाले से बताया कि दाभोलकर सुबह की सैर के लिए निकले थे कि तभी मोटरसाइकिल पर सवार दो हमलावरों ने उनके सिर पर करीब से गोलियां दाग दीं। उन्हें शहर के ओंकारेश्वर पुल पर घायल अवस्था में पाया गया। बाद में उन्होंने ससून अस्पताल में दम तोड़ दिया।
दाभोलकर पिछले 40 सालों से अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन कानून बनवाने के लिए प्रयासरत थे। 2005 में उनका यह विधेयक महाराष्ट्र विधान परिषद में पेश भी हुआ लेकिन इसे पुनर्विचार समिति के पास भेज दिया गया। बीते 8 सालों से यह वहीं अटका हुआ है।
जुलाई में अखबार टाइम्स ऑफ इंडिया से बात करते हुए दाभोलकर ने कहा था, 'मुझे 1983 से ऐसी धमकियां मिल रही हैं। मैं इनका आदी हूं। लेकिन मैं संविधान के दायरे में रहकर लड़ रहा हूं और जो लोग इस बिल के खिलाफ हैं वो जितनी बार चाहें इसपर चर्चा और बहस कर सकते हैं। इस बिल से डरने की जरूरत सिर्फ उन्हें है जो आम आदमी को बहकाते हैं। पिछले 6 सत्रों से यह बिल विधानसभा में पेंडिंग है। कुछ गुमराह ताकतें इसकी राह में रोड़ा अटका रही हैं और सरकार इस बिल को पास करने में हिचकिचा रही है।'
दाभोलकर के परिवारवालों और दोस्तों ने बताया कि उन्हें अक्सर धमकियां मिलती रहती थीं और उनपर कई बार हथियारों और लाठियों से हमला भी किया गया। लेकिन उन्होंने पुलिस प्रोटेक्शन लेने से मना कर दिया। अब, उनके अनुयायियों और दोस्तों को इस बात का अफसोस है कि उन्होंने उन धमकियों को कभी गंभीरता से नहीं लिया।
वेटरन कम्युनिस्ट नेता गोविंदराव पंसारे ने कहा कि अंधविश्वास के खिलाफ लड़ाई जारी रहेगी। उन्होंने कहा, 'दाभोलकर की हत्या इस बात का संकेत है कि हमारे बीच कुछ ऐसे कट्टरपंथी और फासीवादी हैं जो हिंसा से सभी तर्कसंगत आवाजों को दबा देना चाहते हैं।' दाभोलकर को याद करते हुए उन्होंने कहा, 'वह एक बहादुर समाजसेवी थे जो उस खतरनाक रास्ते को बखूबी पहचानते थे जिसपर वह चल रहे थे। अंधविश्वास के जरिए सामाजिक-आर्थिक फायदे उठाने वाले लोगों के खिलाफ उनके द्वारा शुरू की गई यह लड़ाई जारी रहेगी और हम सब इस मुहिम को और मजबूत बनाएंगे।'
दाभोलकर पर इससे पहले हुए हमलों के बारे में बताते हुए अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन समिति के कार्यकर्ता प्रदीप पाटिल ने बताया, 'उनपर और जाने-माने अभिनेता श्रीराम लागू पर 1991 में सांगली के एक गुट ने लाठियां बरसाई थीं। 1994 पर सांगली में ही हथियार लेकर लोग उनपर टूट पड़े लेकिन दाभोलकर ने पुलिस कम्प्लेंट करने से मना कर दिया।'
अनुराग त्रिपाठी ने नवभारत टाइम्स में लिखा हैः
मुंबई।। सामाजिक कार्यकर्ता डॉ नरेंद्र दाभोलकर की हत्याकिसने की है , यह सवाल पुणे ही नहीं पूरे महाराष्ट्र में गृंज रहाहै। सत्ताधारी कांग्रेस - एनसीपी राजनेताओं से हिंदु संगठनोंपर उंगली उठा दी है। जबकि उनके साथ काम करने वालेकार्यकर्ता दो बड़े बाबाओं का हाथ होने का संकेत दे रहे हैं।बताया जाता है कि डॉ दाभोलकर की ' अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलनसमिति ' इन बाबाओं का परदाफाश करके उनका असलीचेहरा लोगों के सामने उजागर करने वाली थी।
पुणे शहर ठिठका : रिटायर्ड सरकारी कर्मचारियों से लेकर स्टूडेंट्स तक की बड़ी तादाद वाले शांत पुणे शहर केलिए ऐसी घटनाएं आम नहीं हैं। शहर को दो हिस्सों को बांटने वाली नदी को करीब आधा दर्जन पुल जोड़ते हैं।कारों के अलावा सुबह सात बजे लोगों की भी चहलपहल काफी होती है। दाभोलकर पर जिस तरह हमला हुआहै, उसके पीछे साजिश साफ झलकती है। हजारों मोटरसाइकिलों के शहर में एक मोटरसाइकिल पर बैठक हत्यारोंका गुम हो जाना कतई मुश्किल नहीं रहा होगा। दाभोलकर के हत्यारे निश्चित तौर पर कोई संदेश देना चाहते थे।स्थापित संगठनों या प्रतिष्ठानों से टकराने की कीमत जान देकर चुकानी पड़ सकती है। पुणे में पिछले सालआरटीआई ऐकिटविस्ट की हत्या ने भी ऐसा ही कुछ संदेश छोड़ा था। आतंकवादियों की तरह कोई संगठन इसहत्या की जिम्मेदारी लेगा , इसकी उम्मीद कम ही की जानी चाहिए। पुणे की कानून व्यवस्था पर यह घटना जरूरएक प्रश्न चिह्न छोड़ गई है।
अंधश्रद्धा कानून से लिंक : महाराष्ट्र विधानमंडल में अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन विधेयक पिछले 14 साल से लटका हुआहै। छह बार इसे अलग - अलग रूप में सदन में पेश किया गया , मगर यह पारित नहीं हो पाया। दाभोलकर इसकानून के कड़े पक्षधर रहे हैं। इस वर्षाकालीन सत्र के दौरान विधानसभा में तो विपक्ष ने इसे बाकायदा 'दाभोलकर विधेयक ' बताकर इसका उपहास उड़ाया। कई समूह और संगठन इस विधेयक का अलग - अलगकारणों से विरोध कर रहे थे। तो क्या इनमें से किसी गुट से उनकी हत्या कर दी। एनसीपी के कार्याध्यक्ष जितेंद्रआव्हाड ने ' सनातक संस्था ' पर आरोप लगाते हुए इसे प्रतिबंधित करने की मांग की है। सनातन संस्था के प्रवक्ताअभय वर्तक यह सफाई दे रहे हैं कि उनका दाभोलकर से कोई बैर था ही नहीं। वैसे , 14 साल से सिर्फ ' निरर्थक 'चर्चा में फंसे विधेयक के लिए हत्या हो सकती है क्या , इस सवाल पर भी गौर करना होगा।
विचारों की हत्या : हिंसा और दबाव की राजनीतिक की जगह केवल चर्चा से मामले सुझाने के हामी थे डॉदाभोलकर। सभी से संवाद करने को हमेशा तैयार रहने वाले आदमी को कोई क्यों मारेगा ? प्रश्न का कोई साफउत्तर सामने नहीं आ रहा। कोई तो था जो उनके विचारों को खतरनाक मान रहा था , यह बात तो पक्की है। यहआदमी नहीं विचारों की हत्या करने की कोशिश है। किसी तरह के विरोध को बरदाश्त न करने वाली शक्तियांभारतीय लोकतंत्र के लिए घातक हैं। मामला भारत राष्ट्र के अस्तित्व से जुड़ा है।
एक प्रगतिशील आवाज की हत्या
नवभारत टाइम्स ने लिखा हैः
समाज में फैली टोने-टोटके और नरबलि जैसी अमानुषिक, अघोरी प्रथाओं के खिलाफ 14 साल से आवाज बुलंद करने वाले नरेंद्न दाभोलकर की हत्या ने सबको सुन्न कर दिया है। आजकल ऐसे समाजशास्त्री विरले ही देखने को मिलते हैं, जो अकेडमिक्स से बाहर आकर समाज सुधार के लिए संघर्ष कर रहे हों।
सारा महाराष्ट्र जानता है कि इन प्रथाओं के खिलाफ विधेयक मंजूर कराने के लिए दाभोलकर ने कितना संघर्ष किया। उससे पहले, जातिवाद के विरोध में उन्होंने 'एक गांव, एक कुआं' मुहिम चलाई थी। सनातनी ताकतें दाभोलकर का विरोध करती थीं, पर उनके बीच उग्र टकराव कभी नहीं हुआ, क्योंकि दाभोलकर ने कभी किसी के सामने मुटिठयां नहीं तानीं। संविधान प्रदत्त अधिकारों को उन्होंने कभी चुनौती नहीं दी। वे कहते थे, श्रद्धा-धर्म और उपासना का हक संविधान ने ही दिया है, वे उन बातों के विरोध में नहीं। पर सनातनी ताकतों ने अनेक वर्षों से अंधश्रद्धा विरोधी कानून में अड़ंगा लगा रखा है। उससे भी ज्यादा बड़ी वजह यह है कि 14 साल में जितनी सरकारें आईं उनमें से कोई भी सरकार श्रद्धा और अंधश्रद्धा के बीच की पतली रेखा को साफ नहीं कर पाई।
सन 2005 में विलासराव सरकार के समय विधानसभा में कांग्रेसी सदस्यों ने ही इस विधेयक पर कड़ा एतराज किया था। हर बार सरकार की दुर्बलता से दाभोलकर हताश दिखे, पर वे हारे नहीं थे। इस प्रगतिशील आवाज की हत्या से महाराष्ट्र एवं समाज का भारी नुकसान हुआ है। उनकी हत्या की गुत्थी सुलझने में शायद वक्त लगे। तब तक सनातनी ताकतों की ओर शक की सुई टिकी रहेगी। पर आगामी चुनाव को ध्यान में रखते हुए यह समाज में असमंजस और कंफ्यूजन फैलाने वालों की ही कोई साजिश हो, इस संभावना से भी इनकार नहीं किया जा सकता।
व्यापार के लिए भारत आए लॉर्ड बेंटिंक ने 1829 में सती प्रथा के विरोध में कानून बनाया था। इसका विरोध करने वालों को फटकारते हुए उन्होंने कहा था, आंखों के सामने एक स्त्री को जिंदा जलते हुए देखने के बाद भी हमने हस्तक्षेप नहीं किया तो हम शासन करने के लायक नहीं हैं। दाभोलकर कहते थे, किसी मनुष्य को बलि चढ़ते या उसे अघोरी प्रथा का शिकार बनते देखने के बाद भी आंखें फेर लेनेवाले आज के शासक क्या नालायक नहीं हैं? उम्मीद करते हैं कि दाभोलकर की शहादत उन प्रथाओं को नष्ट करने की प्रक्रिया तेज करेगी, जो आधुनिक समाज के लिए शर्मनाक हैं।
Deven Mewari
अंधविश्वास का अंधकार
अंधविश्वास के खिलाफ पिछले तीस वर्षों से लड़ाई लड़ रहे नरेंद्र दाभोलकर की आवाज को प्रतिगामी शक्तियों ने खामोश करने की कोशिश की है लेकिन उन्हें नहीं पनता कि दाभोलकर की आवाज हजारों-हजार लोगों की आवाज बन चुकी है। प्रगतिशील विचारों वाले सभी लोग समाज से अंधविश्वास का पाखेड मिटाने की पुरजोर कोशिश करते रहेंगे। इस कोशिश में नरेंद्र दाभोलकर सदा जीवित रहेंगे..
आज विज्ञान का युग है। विज्ञान के तमाम गैजेट हमारे दैनंदिन जीवन का अभिन्न अंग बन चुके हैं। हम विज्ञान की खोजों तथा आविष्कारों का भरपूर लाभ उठा रहे हैं। फिर भी हमारे समाज का एक बहुत बड़ा वर्ग आज भी निर्मूल धारणाओं और अंधविश्वासों से घिरा हुआ है। इनमें अशिक्षित और पढ़े-लिखे दोनों ही प्रकार के लोग शामिल हैं। ये लोग झाड़-फूंक, जादू-टोना और टोटकों से लेकर तरह-तरह के भ्रमों पर विश्वास करते हैं जिसके कारण वे वैज्ञानिक चेतना से दूर हैं। अनेक टी.वी. चैनल भी सामान्य प्राकृतिक घटनाओं की ज्योतिषियों से अवैज्ञानिक व्याख्याएं प्रस्तुत करके अंधविश्वास फैलाने में योगदान दे रहे हैं।
इसका एक उदाहरण समय-समय पर लगने वाले सूर्य और चंद्रग्रहण भी हैं। 15 जून 2011 को इस सदी का सबसे लंबा सूर्यग्रहण लगा था जो एक यादगार और अद्भुत आकाशीय घटना थी। लेकिन, अनेक टी. वी. चैनलों ने ज्योतिषियों को आमंत्रित करके ग्रहण के बारे में अनेक प्रकार के भ्रम फैलाए। सूर्य, चंद्रमा और पृथ्वी की इस विशेष स्थिति को समझाने के बजाय अंधविश्वासों को सामने रखा।
ज्योतिषी फलाफल परिणाम बांचने के मोह में प्राचीन ज्योतिषी आर्यभट प्रथम के 'आर्यभटीय' ग्रंथ तक का उल्लेख नहीं करते जिसमें ग्रहणों की सटीक व्याख्या की गई है। आर्यभट ने 499 ई. में ही गणना करके बता दिया था कि चंद्र ग्रहण पृथ्वी की छाया और सूर्य ग्रहण चंद्रमा की छाया के कारण लगता है।
(बाकी http://devenmewari.in/?p=381 पर )
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नरेंद्र दाभोलकर
| नरेंद्र दाभोलकर | |
जन्म | नरेंद्र |
मृत्यू | |
मृत्यूचे कारण | अज्ञात मारेकऱ्यांनी डोक्यात गोळ्या घालून हत्या केली |
राष्ट्रीयत्व | भारतीय |
नागरिकत्व | भारतीय |
प्रशिक्षणसंस्था | मिरज वैद्यकीय महाविद्यालय |
पेशा | वैद्यकीय |
मूळ गाव | सिंधुदुर्ग जिल्ह्यातील दाभोली |
ख्याती | |
पदवी हुद्दा | संपादक |
कार्यकाळ | १ मे १९९८ ते पासून |
पूर्ववर्ती | वसंत बापट |
धर्म | हिंदू |
जोडीदार | शैला |
अपत्ये | डॉ मुग्धा दाभोलकर देशपांडे |
वडील | अच्युत लक्ष्मण दाभोलकर |
आई | ताराबाई अच्युत दाभोलकर |
संकेतस्थळ |
नरेंद्र अच्युत दाभोलकर (नोव्हेंबर १, इ.स. १९४५ - ऑगस्ट २०, इ.स. २०१३) हे मराठी बुद्धिवादी, विज्ञानवादी, समाजसुधारक व सामाजिक कार्यकर्ते होते. त्यांनी अंधश्रद्धांच्या निर्मूलनासाठी इ.स. १९८९साली समविचारी कार्यकर्त्यांना जमवून महाराष्ट्र अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन समिती ही संघटना स्थापली.
अनुक्रमणिका
[लपवा]
जीवन[संपादन]
नरेंद्र हे अच्युत लक्ष्मण दाभोलकर व ताराबाई अच्युत दाभोलकर त्यांच्या दहा आपत्यांपैकी सर्वात धाकटे होय. त्यांचा जन्म सातारा जिल्ह्यातील माहुली या गावी झाला. सुप्रसिद्ध समाजचिंतक कै. डॉ. देवदत्त दाभोळकर हे त्यांचे सर्वात थोरले बंधू होते.
शिक्षण[संपादन]
नरेंद्र दाभोलकरांचे माध्यमिक शिक्षण साताऱ्यातील न्यू इंग्लिश स्कूल शाळेत झाले. त्यांनी सांगलीतीलविलिंग्डन महाविद्यालयातून विज्ञान शाखेतील उच्च माध्यमिक शिक्षण पूर्ण केले. ते राष्ट्रीय-आंतरराष्ट्रीय स्तरावरचे उत्तम कबड्डीपटू म्हणून क्रीडाजगतात प्रसिद्ध होते. कबड्डीवर उपलब्ध असलेलं एकमेव शास्त्रशुद्ध पुस्तकही त्यांनी लिहीले. कबड्डीतील योगदानासाठी त्यांना मानाचा शिवछत्रपती पुरस्कारही मिळाला. इ.स. १९७० साली मिरज वैद्यकीय महाविद्यालयातून वैद्यकीय शाखेचे उच्च शिक्षण पूर्ण केले व त्यानंतर त्यांनीसातारा यथे वैद्यकीय व्यवसाय सुरू केला.[१]
सामाजिक कार्य[संपादन]
बाबा आढाव यांच्या एक गाव - एक पाणवठा या चळवळीत दाभोलकर यांचा सक्रिय सहभाग होता. त्यानंतर त्यांनी श्याम मानव यांच्या इ.स. १९८३ साली स्थापन झालेल्या अखिल भारतीय अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन समिती मध्ये कार्य सुरू केले. पण नंतर इ.स. १९८९ मध्ये त्यापासून वेगळे होऊन त्यांनी महाराष्ट्र अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन समिती स्थापन केली. साने गुरुजींनी स्थापन केलेल्या साधना या लोकप्रिय साप्ताहिकाचे ते डिसेंबर २००६पासून आँगस्ट २०१३पर्यंत संपादक होते.
अंधश्रद्धेविरोधात आयुष्यभर लढा[संपादन]
महाराष्ट्र अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन समितीच्या माध्यमातून समाजातील अंधश्रद्धा, अनिष्ठ रुढी, परंपरा मोडीत काढण्यासाठी लोकप्रबोधन करण्यात येत आहे. महाराष्ट्र जादूटोणाविरोधी विधेयक विधीमंडळात मंजूर व्हावे, यासाठी दाभोलकर गेल्या काही वर्षांपासून कार्यरत होते. यासंदर्भात सातत्याने विविध राजकीय पक्षांच्या नेत्यांची भेट घेऊन विधेयकाच्या बाजून सर्वपक्षीय मत बनवण्याचे काम ते करीत होते. समाजातील भोंदू बाबांचे पितळ दाभोलकर आणि अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन समितीच्या कार्यकर्त्यांनी सप्रयोग उघडे केले होते. पुरोगामी महाराष्ट्राच्या वैचारिक वर्तुळामध्ये अजातशत्रू असेच दाभोलकरांचे व्यक्तिमत्त्व होते.[२]
साहित्य[संपादन]
अंधश्रद्धा : प्रश्नचिन्ह आणि पूर्णविराम - राजहंस प्रकाशन
अंधश्रद्धा विनाशाय - राजहंस प्रकाशन
ऐसे कैसे झाले भोंदू - मनोविकास प्रकाशन
झपाटले ते जाणतेपण - संपादक नरेंद्र दाभोळकर व विनोद शिरसाठ.
ठरलं... डोळस व्हायचंय - मनोविकास प्रकाशन
तिमिरातुनी तेजाकडे - राजहंस प्रकाशन
प्रश्न मनाचे (सहलेखक डॉ हमीद दाभोलकर) - राजहंस प्रकाशन
भ्रम आणि निरास - राजहंस प्रकाशन
विचार तर कराल? - राजहंस प्रकाशन
विवेकाची पताका घेऊ खांद्यावरी - दिलीपराज प्रकाशन
श्रद्धा-अंधश्रद्धा - राजहंस प्रकाशन (इ.स. २००२)
विवेकाची पताका घेऊ खांद्यावरी[संपादन]
विवेकाची पताका घेऊ खांद्यावरी'[३] हे डॉ. नरेंद्र दाभोलकर यांचे पुस्तक. महाराष्ट्रातील अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन चळवळीची पार्श्वभूमी या पुस्तकातील सर्व लेखांना आहे. प्रस्तावनेत डॉ. दाभोलकरांनी अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलनाची चतु:सूत्री दिली आहे. ती अशी,
१) शोषण करणाऱ्या, दिशाभूल करणाऱ्या अंधश्रद्धांना विरोध करणं,
२) वैज्ञानिक दृष्टिकोनाचा प्रचार करणं व त्याआधारे विविध घटना तपासणं,
३) धर्माची विधायक कृतिशील चिकित्सा करणं म्हणजे धर्माबाबत काही आकलन व धर्मनिरपेक्षतेचा वेगळा दृष्टिकोन रुजवणं,
४) व्यापक परिवर्तनाचं भान जागृत करणं, सजग करणं,'
ही चतु:सूत्री मनात ठेवून या पुस्तकातील सर्व लेखांकडे वाचकांनी पहावं, असं या प्रस्तावनेत नमूद केलं आहे. वैज्ञानिक दृष्टिकोनचा विचार, प्रसार, अंगीकार करण्याचं अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन चळवळीचं सूत्र या पुस्तकातील सर्व लेखांच्या मुळाशी आहे. या पुस्तकात धर्माची कृतिशील आणि विधायक चिकित्सा केलेली आहे. यात छत्तीस लेख आहेत.
पैशाच्या पावसाच्या लोभापायी नांदोस येथे घडलेल्या हत्याकांडाच्या निमित्तानं लिहिलेल्या लेखात डॉ. दाभोलकर लिहितात, 'शिक्षणक्षेत्र, प्रसारमाध्यमे व ओपिनीयन लीडर यांनी कणखर कृतिशील भूमिका घेण्याची गरज आहेच, पण त्याचबरोबर आणखी काही बाबींचे अवधान राखावयास हवे. संयम शिकवणारा धर्म आज आंधळ्या अतिरेक्यांच्या मुठीत कैद झाला आहे. एका बाजूला कथित धार्मिकतेला उदंड उधाण आलेले, तर दुसरीकडे सर्वच धर्मानी उद्घोषलेली नीतीतत्वे मात्र सरपटणाऱ्या प्राण्याप्रमाणे खुरडत चाललेली. असे का घडत आहे, का घडवले जात आहे, याचाही विचार करावयास हवा. हे चित्र बदलण्यासाठी प्रबोधनासोबतच एका व्यापक समाज परिवर्तनाची गरज आहे. उघडपणे शोषणावर आधारलेल्या व्यवस्थेने ज्या समाजाचा पाया रचला आहे, त्या समाजातील माणसाच्या मनाचे उन्नयन करणे, हे चर्चेने घडणारें काम राहत नाही. त्यासाठी शोषण संपवून व सृजनशील जीवन शक्य होईल, अशा समाज-व्यवस्था निर्मितीचे आव्हानही पेलावे लागेल, याचे भानही आवश्यक आहे'[४] हे विवेचन फार महत्त्वाचं आहे. शिक्षणक्षेत्र, प्रसारमाध्यमं, ओपिनीयन लीडर, सुशिक्षित असणारा मध्यमवर्ग, वेगवेगळ्या पदांवरील उच्चशिक्षित, इंजिनिअर, डॉक्टर, वकील वगैरे व्यक्तींनी सभोवतीच्या अंधश्रद्धेच्या दूषित पर्यावरणाची सखोल चिकित्सा केली पाहिजे. आपण अंधश्रद्धा शोषणाच्या व्यवस्थांना खतपाणी घालत आहोत का? या व्यवस्थेचा आपण घटक आहोत का, हे समजून घेतलं पाहिजे, हे भान या पुस्तकातील या लेखासह इतरही लेख वाचताना येतं.
'बाळू मामाची नवसाची मेंढरं' या लेखात अंधश्रद्धांच्या संदर्भातील मानसिक गुलामगिरीची बेडी माणसांच्या मनात किती घट्ट बसली आहे, त्याचं प्रत्यंतर येते. 'वैज्ञानिक दृष्टिकोन म्हणजे कार्यकारण भाव, चमत्कार म्हणजे वैज्ञानिक दृष्टिकोनाचा अभाव, हे नाते प्रकाश अंधारासारखे आहे. एकाचे असणे म्हणजे अपरिहार्यपणे दुसऱ्याचे नसणे.. मानसिक गुलामगिरीची सर्वात भयानकता ही की त्या अवस्थेत माणसाच्या बुद्धीला प्रश्न विचारलेला चालत नाही मग तो पडणे तर दूरच राहिले. व्यक्तीचे बुद्धिवैभव, निर्णयशक्ती, सारासार विचारांची क्षमता या सर्व बाबी चमत्काराच्या पुढे गहाण पडतात. व्यक्ती परतंत्र बनते. परिवर्तनाची लढाई मग अधिक अवघड बनते. म्हणूनच जनमानस शोधक, निर्भय व कृतिशील बनवून ते व्यापक परिवर्तनाच्या चळवळींसाठी तयार करावयास हवे' [५] हे मनापासून समजून घेणं हे अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलनाच्या दिशेनं उचललेलं पहिलं पाऊल असेल, तेव्हा प्रत्येकानं आपण स्वत:वरचा विश्वास गमावला आहे का, ते प्रामाणिकपणे तपासून पाहण्याची गरज आहे. 'मानसिक गुलामगिरीचे गडेकोट' हा लेख यासंदर्भात लक्षणीय आहे. अघोरी अंधश्रद्धांबाबत कायदा करण्याची गरज आहे, पण 'पुरोगामी' म्हटल्या जाणाऱ्या महाराष्ट्रास असा कायदा करणं कसं अवघड आहे, त्याची हकीकत तीन लेखांमध्ये सांगितली आणि धर्माची कृतिशील आणि विधायक चिकित्सा करण्यासंदर्भात महाराष्ट्रात कसं मौन बाळगलं गेलं आहे, त्याची मीमांसा काही लेखांमधून केली आहे. सुशिक्षित आणि पुरोगामी म्हणवून घेणाऱ्यांनी हे लेख आवर्जून वाचावेत.
'विरोध धर्माला नसून धर्मवादाला' आणि 'माझी धर्मनिरपेक्षता' हे दोन लेख वेगळे आहे. महाराष्ट्र राज्य अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन समितीची धर्माबाबतची भूमिका आणि डॉ. दाभोलकरांची धर्मनिरपेक्षतेच्या संदर्भातली भूमिका या दोन लेखांमधून कळते.
'विवेकाची पताका घेऊ खांद्यावरी', 'सामाजिक समतेचे मन्वंतर घडविणारी वारी', या लेखांमधून हिंदू हित रक्षणाच्या नावाखाली सुरू असलेल्या आकांडतांडवाची चिकित्सा आणि पंढरपूरच्या वारीनं सामाजिक समतेचं मन्वंतर कसं घडू शकतं, याचीही चिकित्सा केली आहे, तर एका लेखात अंधश्रद्धा निर्मूलन चळवळीच्या यशापयशाची चिकित्सा केली आहे. शिक्षणक्षेत्र, प्रसारमाध्यमं आणि प्रशासन हे तीन घटक विवेकवादाचे सामाजिक आधार कसे ठरू शकतात, ते विशद केलं आहे. 'विवेकवादी चळवळ: उद्याची आव्हाने' या लेखात 'वैज्ञानिक दृष्टिकोन, शोधक बुद्धी, सामाजिक सुधारणा व मानवतावाद याचा पाठपुरावा हे प्रत्येक भारतीयांचं कर्तव्य असल्याचं भारतीय घटनेत सांगितलं आहे. शिक्षण, प्रसारमाध्यमं, प्रशासन या तीनही स्रोतांसह वैज्ञानिक दृष्टिकोन प्रत्यक्ष अंगीकारणाऱ्या प्रत्येक माणसानं घटनेतील या कर्तव्यपालनाबाबत आग्रही असण्याचं आवाहन पुस्तकात केलं आहे.
अैसे कैसे झाले भोंदू?[संपादन]
डॉ. नरेंद्र दाभोलकर यांचे परखड विचार-
दिल्लीतील बलात्कार प्रकरणानंतर प्रतिक्रिया देताना अनेकांनी अकलेचे तारे तोडले.[६]- आसारामबापू आणि अनिरुद्धबापू यांनी तर कहरच केला. बलात्कारित तरुणीने सरस्वती मंत्राचा जप केला असता तर बलात्कार झालाच नसता, मी दिलेल्या एका विशिष्ट मंत्रामुळे बलात्कारी नपुंसक होतील अशी या बुवाबापूंची विधानं म्हणजे निव्वळ भोंदूगिरीच नाही तर समाजाची दिशाभूल आहे. दिल्लीतील बलात्कार पीडित तरुणीच्या मृत्यूने सारा देश व्यथित झाला. संताप उसळला. पुन्हा असे घडू नये यासाठी अनेक उपाय सर्व समाजघटकांतून व स्तरांतून पुढे आले. मग कथित आध्यात्मिक गुरू तरी मागे कसे राहणार? आसारामबापू व अनिरुद्धबापू या दोघांनी सुचवलेले उपाय सर्वत्र गाजले. आसारामबापूंच्या मते घरी सरस्वती स्तोत्र म्हणून जर ती तरुणी बाहेर पडली असती, तर तिच्यावर बलात्कार होऊच शकला नसता. अत्याचार करणाऱ्यांपैकी काही जणांना तुम्ही माझे भाऊ आहात, मला वाचवा, अशी मनधरणी तिने करावयास हवी होती. अनिरुद्धबापूंचे म्हणणे असे की, जर स्त्रीने 'अनिरुद्ध चालीसा' रोज १०८ वेळा असे अकरा दिवस म्हटले तर बलात्काराचा प्रयत्न करणारी व्यक्ती आपोआप नपुंसक होईल व तसे सर्वाना कळेल. मुळात 'अनिरुद्ध गुरुक्षेत्र' मंत्राचा जप केला तर बलात्कार होऊच शकणार नाही. शिवाय त्यांच्या चंडिका गटाच्या व अहिल्या संघाच्या महिलांना ते असे टेक्निक शिकवणार आहेत की, बलात्कार करणाऱ्याला त्या नपुंसक करतील. आसारामबापूंनी याही पुढे जाऊन एका हाताने टाळी वाजत नाही, असेही तारे तोडले. याबाबत टीका करणाऱ्या माध्यमांना त्यांनी भुंकणाऱ्या कुत्र्याची उपमा दिली. ही बाबा मंडळी स्वत:मध्ये विलक्षण गुंतलेली असतात. त्यांची सर्व आखणी व्यक्तिमाहात्म्य वाढवणाऱ्या तंत्राची असते. प्रश्न या कथित आध्यात्मिक गुरूंच्या बरळण्याचा नाही, तर आज अशा स्वयंघोषित बाबा, बापू, स्वामी, भगवान, महाराज यांची जी साम्राज्ये उभी राहिली आहेत आणि त्यांना लक्षावधीचा अनुयायी वर्ग लाभत आहे, त्या सामाजिक मानसिकतेच्या व व्यवस्थेचा शोध घेण्याचा आहे. विशेषत: साडेतीनशे वर्षांपूर्वी तुकाराम महाराज म्हणाले, 'अैसे कैसे झाले भोंदू। कर्म करूनि या म्हणती साधु। अंगा लावूनिया राख। डोळे झाकून करती पाप।। दावूनी वैराग्याचा कला। भोगी विषयाचा सोहळा।। तुका म्हणे सांगू किती। जळो तयाची संगती।। असे परखड बोल ऐकणाऱ्या समाजात आज 'जळो तयाची संगती याऐवजी 'मिळो तयाची संगती' अशी अवस्था का आली याचा शोध घ्यावयास हवा. बुवाबाजीचे पीक या भूमीत भरघोस येण्याचे कारण या देशाच्या मनोभूमीची मशागत नियती, विधिलिखित, दैव, नशीब, प्रारब्ध या कल्पनांनी केली आहे.[६] आसारामबापू निखालस अवैज्ञानिक असामाजिक विधाने करून समाजाला संकटाच्या मार्गाकडे ढकलत आहेत. हा आजचा मामला नाही. त्यांच्यापैकी मराठीत प्रसिद्ध होणाऱ्या 'ऋषीप्रसाद' या मासिकातील पान क्र. १२ वरील हा मजकूर पाहा- 'एका भोजपत्रावर' 'टं' लिहून उजव्या दंडावरील ताईतामध्ये बांधल्यास तो ताईत सर्व विघ्ननाशकाच्या रूपात काम करतो. कॅल्शियमची कमतरता, स्त्रियांमधील दुधाची कमतरता, नवजात बालकाचे जास्त रडणे यासाठी कागदावर हा 'ट' लिहून गळ्यात ताईताप्रमाणे बांधल्यास मुलाचे रडणे, किंचाळणे शांत होते. मंत्रजप महिमा (हिंदूी पा. क्र. ३५) यातील इलाज पाहा- 'सात वेळा हरी ॐ चा उच्चार केल्याने मूलाधार केंद्रात स्पंदने होतात. कित्येक रोगांचे किटाणू पळून जातात. प्रा. गटेचे म्हणणे आहे की, जर एक तासपर्यंत क्रोध करणाऱ्या व्यक्तीच्या विषारी श्वासाचे कण एकत्रित करून इंजेक्शन तयार केले, तर त्याने २० लोक मरू शकतात.' अनिरुद्धबापूंच्या दरबाराच्या रांगेत उभे राहिले की, जितक्या इच्छापूर्तीची अपेक्षा असेल तितक्या सुपाऱ्या हातात घ्यायच्या. बापूंनी तपश्चर्येने त्या सिद्ध केलेल्या असल्यामुळे तुमचे काम होतेच; शिवाय 'अनिरुद्ध उपासना ट्रस्ट'च्या प्रकाशनात संकट येण्यापूर्वीच बापू त्या ठिकाणी कसे हजर होतात, ते भक्तांना कधी श्रीकृष्ण, कधी राम, कधी विठोबा यांच्या रूपात कसे दर्शन देतात, ते भक्ताचा पूर्वजन्म आणि पुनर्जन्म कसा जाणतात याची रसभरीत वर्णने आढळतात. प्रत्यक्षात ही बाबा मंडळी स्वत:मध्ये विलक्षण गुंतलेली असतात. त्यांची सर्व आखणी व्यक्तिमाहात्म्य वाढवणाऱ्या तंत्राची असते. बाबांच्या भक्तांचे विशिष्ट रंगाचे कपडे, विशिष्ट माळा, महाराजांचा फोटो असलेला बिल्ला, पेन, मंत्रजप या साऱ्यांतून एक प्रभावी वातावरणनिर्मिती होते. काही वर्षांपूर्वी आसारामबापूंनी एका इंग्रजी वृत्तपत्राला दिलेल्या मुलाखतीत सांगितले होते- 'ज्याप्रमाणे आपण चांगली शाळा, चांगला शिक्षक, चांगला डॉक्टर शोधतो त्याप्रमाणेच प्रत्येकाने चांगला गुरूही शोधावा. गुरू हा शिष्याचा सर्व संशय मुळापासून उखडून काढतो, भीती घालवतो. जन्ममृत्यूच्या फेऱ्यातून त्याला वाचवतो. त्याच्या दर्शनाने वासना, विकार गळून पडतात व अक्षय आनंदाचा ठेवा मिळतो. आपल्या भक्ताचे दु:ख ध्यान, मंत्र असे आध्यात्मिक मार्ग, सत्संग व गुरूभोवतालचे दैवी वलय आणि स्पंदने याद्वारे गुरू बरा करतो.' गुरूच्या पायावर आपली बुद्धी गहाण ठेवल्याशिवाय अशी गुरुभक्ती सुचणे अवघड आहे; परंतु ज्या वेगाने आज बाबा-बुवा, गुरू, सद्गुरू, स्वामी, महाराज यांचे पीक वाढते आहे ते लक्षात घेता ही मानसिकताच जनमानसावर प्रत्यक्ष अधिकार गाजवते आहे असे दिसते. उपचार, चमत्कार करणारे वा न करणारे बाबा अथवा महाराज हे सर्व परमार्थ, ईश्वरशक्ती, ईश्वरप्राप्ती, ब्रह्मज्ञान या नावानेच करत असतात. त्यांची खरी ताकद फसवणूक करण्याच्या कसबात नसते, तर लोकमानसात कथित परमार्थाबद्दल परंपरेतून आलेली जी विलक्षण मान्यता आहे त्यामध्ये असते. बाबांचे विचार, पारायणे, गुरुभक्ती यातच भक्ताला जीवनाचा आधार व कृतार्थता वाटते. त्यामधून मग अव्वल दर्जाची मानसिक गुलामगिरी निर्माण होते.[६]
मृत्यू[संपादन]
नरेंद्र दाभोळकर यांची २० ऑगस्ट, २०१३ मंगळवारी सकाळी साडेसात वाजता पुण्यातील बालगंधर्व रंगमंदिरानजिक असलेल्या महर्षी शिंदे पूलावर अज्ञातांनी ४ गोळ्या झाडून हत्या केली.पुण्यामध्ये असताना डॉ. नरेंद्र दाभोलकर दररोज बालंगधर्व रंगमंदिराजवळ प्रभात फेरीसाठी जात असत.[७]
मंगळवार २० ऑगस्ट, २०१३ रोजी सकाळी प्रभात फेरीसाठी निघाल्यावर ते महर्षी शिंदे पूलावरून ओंकारेश्वर मंदिराच्याविरुद्ध बाजूने साधना साप्ताहिकाच्या कार्यालयाच्या दिशेने निघाले होते पूलावर असताना सकाळी साडेसातच्या सुमारास त्यांच्यावर दोन अज्ञात हल्लेखोऱांनी गोळ्या झाडल्या. एक गोळी त्याच्या पाठीच्या बाजूला लागली आणि एक चुकीच्या दिशेने गेली हल्लेखोरांनी दाभोळकरांवर पाठीमागून चार गोळ्या झाडल्या. त्यापैकी दोन गोळ्या त्यांच्या डोक्यात झाडण्यात गोळ्या लागल्यामुळे दाभोळकर घटनास्थळीच कोसळले गोळीबार केल्यावर हल्लेखोर स्प्लेंडर दुचाकीवरून पळून गेले. हल्लेखोर २५ ते ३० वयोगटातील होते. हल्लेखोरांपैकी एकाने टोपी घातली होती आणि दुसऱयाच्या पाठीवर बॅग होती. घटना घडल्यावर हल्लेखोर रविवार पेठेच्या दिशेने पळून गेल्याचे पोलिसांनी सांगितले. एका प्रत्यक्षदर्शीने ही घटना बघितल्यावर पोलिसांना त्याबद्दल माहिती दिली.
पोलिसांनी दाभोळकरांना ससून रुग्णालयात हलविले ससून रुग्णालयातील डॉक्टरांनी त्यांना मृत घोषित केले. दाभोळकर यांच्या शर्टच्या खिशामध्ये एक छायाचित्र आणि दोन धनादेश होते. त्यापैकी एका धनादेशावर दाभोळकर यांचे नाव लिहिले होते, असे पोलिसांनी सांगितले छायाचित्रावरून आणि साधना साप्ताहिकाच्या काही कार्यकर्त्यांनी ओळख पटविल्यावर पोलिसांनी नरेंद्र दाभोळकर यांची हत्या झाल्याचे घोषित केले. [८]
पुरस्कार[संपादन]
समाज गौरव पुरस्कार- रोटरी क्लब
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दादासाहेब साखवळकर पुरस्कार
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शिवछत्रपती पुरस्कार - कबड्डी
संदर्भ आणि नोंदी[संपादन]
↑ दाभोलकरांच्या पार्थिवावर अंत्यसंस्कार. (मराठी मजकूर)
↑ विवेकवादी चळवळीत असणा-या प्रत्येकानं वाचावं असं डॉ. दाभोळकर यांचं पुस्तक. (मराठी मजकूर)
↑ विवेकाची पताका घेऊ खांद्यावरी-डॉ. नरेंद्र दाभोलकर,पृष्ठ १३
↑ विवेकाची पताका घेऊ खांद्यावरी-डॉ. नरेंद्र दाभोलकर,>पृष्ठ २३, २४
↑ ६.० ६.१ ६.२ अैसे कैसे झाले भोंदू?. (मराठी मजकूर)
↑ नरेंद्र दाभोळकरांची पुण्यात हत्या. (मराठी मजकूर)
↑ ... असा झाला नरेंद्र दाभोळकर यांच्यावर हल्ला. (मराठी मजकूर)
खरेखुरे (लेखसंग्रह), युनिक फीचर्स, २००६, संपादक सुहास कुलकर्णी, 'डॉ. नरेंद्र दाभोलकर', लेखक विनोद शिरसाठ, पाने ९५ ते ९९
Galileo Galilei
| Galileo Galilei | |
|---|---|
 Portrait of Galileo Galilei by Giusto Sustermans | |
| Born | 15 February 1564[1] Pisa,[1] Duchy of Florence, Italy |
| Died | 8 January 1642 (aged 77)[1] Arcetri,[1] Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Italy |
| Residence | Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Italy |
| Nationality | Italian (Tuscan) |
| Fields | Astronomy, physics and mathematics |
| Institutions | University of Pisa University of Padua |
| Alma mater | University of Pisa |
| Academic advisors | Ostilio Ricci[2] |
| Notable students | Benedetto Castelli Mario Guiducci Vincenzo Viviani[3] |
| Known for | Kinematics Dynamics Telescopic observational astronomy Heliocentrism |
Signature | |
Notes His father was the musician Vincenzo Galilei. Galileo Galilei's mistress Marina Gamba (1570 – 21 August 1612?) bore him two daughters (Maria Celeste (Virginia, 1600–1634) and Livia (1601–1659), both of whom became nuns) and a son Vincenzo (1606–1649), a lutenist. | |
Galileo Galilei (Italian pronunciation: [ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛi]; 15 February 1564[4] – 8 January 1642),[5] was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to thetelescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy",[6] the "father of modern physics",[7] the "father of science",[7] and "the Father of Modern Science".[8]
His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of thephases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass and other instruments.
Galileo's championing of heliocentrism was controversial within his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system.[9] He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism due to the absence of an observed stellar parallax.[9] The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, and they concluded that it could be supported as only a possibility, not an established fact.[9][10]Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point.[9] He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.[11][12] It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he wrote one of his finest works, Two New Sciences, in which he summarised the work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials.[13][14]
Contents
[hide]Early life
Galileo was born in Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence), Italy, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist, composer, and music theorist; and Giulia Ammannati. Galileo became an accomplished lutenist himself and would have learned early from his father a healthy scepticism for established authority,[15] the value of well-measured or quantified experimentation, an appreciation for a periodic or musical measure of time or rhythm, as well as the illuminative progeny to expect from a marriage of mathematics and experiment. Three of Galileo's five siblings survived infancy, and the youngest Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo) also became a noted lutenist and composer, although he contributed to financial burdens during Galileo's young adulthood. Michelangelo was incapable of contributing his fair share for their father's promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo for support of his musical endeavours and excursions. These financial burdens may have contributed to Galileo's early fire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income.
Galileo was named after an ancestor, Galileo Bonaiuti, a physician, university teacher and politician who lived in Florence from 1370 to 1450; at that time in the late 14th century, the family's surname shifted from Bonaiuti (or Buonaiuti) to Galilei. Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the same church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence, where about 200 years later his more famous descendant Galileo Galilei was buried too. When Galileo Galilei was 8, his family moved to Florence, but he was left with Jacopo Borghini for two years.[1]He then was educated in the Camaldolese Monastery at Vallombrosa, 35 km southeast of Florence.[1]
Although a genuinely pious Roman Catholic,[16] Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock withMarina Gamba. They had two daughters, Virginia in 1600 and Livia in 1601, and one son, Vincenzo, in 1606. Because of their illegitimate birth, their father considered the girls unmarriageable, if not posing problems of prohibitively expensive support or dowries, which would have been similar to Galileo's previous extensive financial problems with two of his sisters.[17] Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives.[18] Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life. Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of Galileo, and married Sestilia Bocchineri.[19]
Career as a scientist
Although he seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, at his father's urging he instead enrolled at the University of Pisa for a medical degree.[20] In 1581, when he was studying medicine, he noticed a swinging chandelier, which air currents shifted about to swing in larger and smaller arcs. It seemed, by comparison with his heartbeat, that the chandelier took the same amount of time to swing back and forth, no matter how far it was swinging. When he returned home, he set up two pendulums of equal length and swung one with a large sweep and the other with a small sweep and found that they kept time together. It was not until Christiaan Huygens almost one hundred years later, however, that the tautochrone nature of a swinging pendulum was used to create an accurate timepiece.[21] To this point, he had deliberately been kept away from mathematics (since a physician earned so much more than a mathematician), but upon accidentally attending a lecture on geometry, he talked his reluctant father into letting him study mathematics and natural philosophy instead.[21] He created a thermoscope (forerunner of the thermometer) and in 1586 published a small book on the design of a hydrostatic balance he had invented (which first brought him to the attention of the scholarly world). Galileo also studied disegno, a term encompassing fine art, and in 1588 attained an instructor position in the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in Florence, teaching perspective and chiaroscuro. Being inspired by the artistic tradition of the city and the works of the Renaissance artists, Galileo acquired an aesthetic mentality. While a young teacher at the Accademia, he began a lifelong friendship with the Florentine painter Cigoli, who included Galileo's lunar observations in one of his paintings.[22][23]
In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591 his father died and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the University of Padua, teaching geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610.[24] During this period Galileo made significant discoveries in both pure fundamental science (for example, kinematics of motion and astronomy) as well as practical applied science (for example, strength of materials and improvement of the telescope). His multiple interests included the study of astrology, which at the time was a discipline tied to the studies of mathematics and astronomy.[25]
Galileo, Kepler and theories of tides
Cardinal Bellarmine had written in 1615 that the Copernican system could not be defended without "a true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun".[26]Galileo considered his theory of the tides to provide the required physical proof of the motion of the earth. This theory was so important to him that he originally intended to entitle his Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems the Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea.[27] The reference to tides was removed by order of the Inquisition.
For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's surface sped up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. He circulated his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini.[28] His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the Adriatic Sea compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure.
If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, about twelve hours apart. Galileo dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes, including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other factors.[29] Against the assertion that Galileo was deceptive in making these arguments, Albert Einstein expressed the opinion that Galileo developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a desire for physical proof of the motion of the Earth.[30] Galileo dismissed the idea, held by his contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the moon caused the tides,[31] which the latter had acquired from the astrological tradition enunciated in Ptolemy'sTetrabiblos.[citation needed] He also refused to accept Kepler's elliptical orbits of the planets,[32] considering the circle the "perfect" shape for planetary orbits.
Controversy over comets and The Assayer
In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in a controversy with Father Orazio Grassi, professor of mathematics at the Jesuit Collegio Romano. It began as a dispute over the nature of comets, but by the time Galileo had published The Assayer (Il Saggiatore) in 1623, his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider argument over the very nature of science itself. Because The Assayer contains such a wealth of Galileo's ideas on how science should be practised, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto.[33] Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618, [34] which discussed the nature of a comet that had appeared late in November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body which had moved along a segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earth,[35] and since it moved in the sky more slowly than the moon, it must be farther away than the moon.
Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticised in a subsequent article, Discourse on the Comets,[36] published under the name of one of Galileo's disciples, a Florentine lawyer named Mario Guiducci, although it had been largely written by Galileo himself.[37] Galileo and Guiducci offered no definitive theory of their own on the nature of comets,[38] although they did present some tentative conjectures that are now known to be mistaken. In its opening passage, Galileo and Guiducci's Discourse gratuitously insulted the JesuitChristopher Scheiner,[39] and various uncomplimentary remarks about the professors of the Collegio Romano were scattered throughout the work.[40] The Jesuits were offended,[41] and Grassi soon replied with a polemical tract of his own, The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance,[42] under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsio Sigensano,[43] purporting to be one of his own pupils.
The Assayer was Galileo's devastating reply to the Astronomical Balance.[44] It has been widely regarded as a masterpiece of polemical literature,[45] in which "Sarsi's" arguments are subjected to withering scorn.[46] It was greeted with wide acclaim, and particularly pleased the new pope, Urban VIII, to whom it had been dedicated.[47] Galileo's dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many of the Jesuits who had previously been sympathetic to his ideas,[48] and Galileo and his friends were convinced that these Jesuits were responsible for bringing about his later condemnation.[49] The evidence for this is at best equivocal, however.[50]
Controversy over heliocentrism
Biblical references Psalm 93:1, 96:10, and 1 Chronicles 16:30 include text stating that "the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved." In the same manner, Psalm 104:5 says, "the Lord set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved." Further,Ecclesiastes 1:5 states that "And the sun rises and sets and returns to its place."[51]
Galileo defended heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to those Scripture passages. He took Augustine's position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally, particularly when the scripture in question is a book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. He believed that the writers of the Scripture merely wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, from that vantage point that the sun does rise and set. Another way to put this is that the writers would have been writing from a phenomenological point of view, or style. So Galileo claimed that science did not contradict Scripture, as Scripture was discussing a different kind of "movement" of the earth, and not rotations.[52]
By 1616 the attacks on the ideas of Copernicus had reached a head, and Galileo went to Rome to try to persuade Catholic Church authorities not to ban Copernicus' ideas. In the end, a decree of the Congregation of the Index was issued, declaring that the ideas that the Sun stood still and that the Earth moved were "false" and "altogether contrary to Holy Scripture", and suspending Copernicus's De Revolutionibus until it could be corrected. Acting on instructions from the Pope before the decree was issued, Cardinal Bellarmineinformed Galileo that it was forthcoming, that the ideas it condemned could not be "defended or held", and ordered him to abandon them. Galileo promised to obey. Bellarmine's instruction did not prohibit Galileo from discussing heliocentrism as a mathematical fiction but was dangerously ambiguous as to whether he could treat it as a physical possibility.[53] For the next several years Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal MaffeoBarberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the condemnation of Galileo in 1616. The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632, with formal authorization from theInquisition and papal permission.[54]
Dava Sobel[55] explains that during this time, Urban had begun to fall more and more under the influence of court intrigue and problems of state. His friendship with Galileo began to take second place to his feelings of persecution and fear for his own life. At this low point in Urban's life, the problem of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of Galileo. Coming on top of the recent claim by the then Spanish cardinal that Urban was soft on defending the church, he reacted out of anger and fear. This situation did not bode well for Galileo's defence of his book.
Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. He made another request, that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book. Only the latter of those requests was fulfilled by Galileo. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian Geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. Indeed, although Galileo states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, Simplicio in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton".[56] This portrayal of Simplicio made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory. Unfortunately for his relationship with the Pope, Galileo put the words of Urban VIII into the mouth of Simplicio. Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book.[57] However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy. Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings.
In September 1632, Galileo was ordered to come to Rome to stand trial. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before inquisitor Vincenzo Maculani to be charged. Throughout his trial Galileo steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he had faithfully kept his promise not to hold any of the condemned opinions, and initially he denied even defending them. However, he was eventually persuaded to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his Dialogue could well have obtained the impression that it was intended to be a defence of Copernicanism. In view of Galileo's rather implausible denial that he had ever held Copernican ideas after 1616 or ever intended to defend them in the Dialogue, his final interrogation, in July 1633, concluded with his being threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth, but he maintained his denial despite the threat.[58] The sentence of the Inquisition was delivered on June 22. It was in three essential parts:
- Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions.[59]
- He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition.[60] On the following day this was commuted to house arrest, which he remained under for the rest of his life.
- His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.[61]
According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase And yet it moves, but there is no evidence that he actually said this or anything similar. The first account of the legend dates to a century after his death.[62]
After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he spent the remainder of his life under house arrest. Galileo was ordered to read the seven penitential psalms once a week for the next three years. However his daughter Maria Celeste relieved him of the burden after securing ecclesiastical permission to take it upon herself.[63] It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarised work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials. This book has received high praise from Albert Einstein.[64] As a result of this work, Galileo is often called the "father of modern physics". He went completely blind in 1638 and was suffering from a painfulhernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice.[13][14]
Death
Galileo continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering fever and heart palpitations, he died on 8 January 1642, aged 77.[13]The Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II, wished to bury him in the main body of the Basilica of Santa Croce, next to the tombs of his father and other ancestors, and to erect a marble mausoleum in his honour.[65] These plans were scrapped, however, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, protested,[66] because Galileo was condemned by the Catholic Church for "vehement suspicion of heresy".[67] He was instead buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a corridor from the southern transept of the basilica to the sacristy.[68] He was reburied in the main body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument had been erected there in his honour;[69] during this move, three fingers and a tooth were removed from his remains.[70] One of these fingers, the middle finger from Galileo's right hand, is currently on exhibition at the Museo Galileo in Florence, Italy.[71]
Scientific methods
Galileo made original contributions to the science of motion through an innovative combination of experiment and mathematics.[72] More typical of science at the time were the qualitative studies of William Gilbert, on magnetism and electricity. Galileo's father, Vincenzo Galilei, a lutenist and music theorist, had performed experiments establishing perhaps the oldest known non-linear relation in physics: for a stretched string, the pitch varies as the square root of the tension.[73] These observations lay within the framework of thePythagorean tradition of music, well-known to instrument makers, which included the fact that subdividing a string by a whole number produces a harmonious scale. Thus, a limited amount of mathematics had long related music and physical science, and young Galileo could see his own father's observations expand on that tradition.[74]
Galileo was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. In The Assayer he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures;...."[75] His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late scholastic natural philosophers, which Galileo learned when he studied philosophy.[76] He displayed a peculiar ability to ignore established authorities, most notably Aristotelianism. In broader terms, his work marked another step towards the eventual separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought. He was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. In order to perform his experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provided a reliable foundation on which to confirm mathematical laws using inductive reasoning.
Galileo showed a remarkably modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the parabola, both in terms of conic sections and in terms of the ordinate (y) varying as the square of the abscissa (x). Galilei further asserted that the parabola was the theoretically ideal trajectory of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of friction and other disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be a parabola,[77] but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the artillery of his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would only be very slight.[78]
Astronomy
Based only on uncertain descriptions of the first practical telescope which Hans Lippersheytried to patent in the Netherlands in 1608,[79] Galileo, in the following year, made a telescope with about 3x magnification. He later made improved versions with up to about 30x magnification.[80] With a Galilean telescope the observer could see magnified, upright images on the earth—it was what is commonly known as a terrestrial telescope or a spyglass. He could also use it to observe the sky; for a time he was one of those who could construct telescopes good enough for that purpose. On 25 August 1609, he demonstrated one of his early telescopes, with a magnification of about 8 or 9, to Venetian lawmakers. His telescopes were also a profitable sideline for Galileo selling them to merchants who found them useful both at sea and as items of trade. He published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a brief treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger).[81]
Kepler's Supernova
According to Walusinsky,[82] Galileo's fame as an astronomer dates to his observation and discussion of Kepler's supernova in 1604. Since this new star displayed no detectablediurnal parallax, Galileo concluded that it was a distant star, and therefore disproved the Aristotelian belief in the immutability of the heavens. His public advocacy of this view met with strong opposition.[83]
Jupiter
On 7 January 1610 Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible[84] by their smallness", all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through it.[85] Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been fixed stars. On 10 January Galileo noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation which he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. Within a few days he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter:[86] He had discovered three of Jupiter's four largest satellites (moons). He discovered the fourth on 13 January. Galileo named the group of four the Medicean stars, in honour of his future patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Cosimo's three brothers.[87] Later astronomers, however, renamed them Galilean satellites in honour of their discoverer. These satellites are now called Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.
His observations of the satellites of Jupiter created a revolution in astronomy that reverberates to this day: a planet with smaller planets orbiting it did not conform to the principles of Aristotelian Cosmology, which held that all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth,[88] and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe that Galileo could have discovered such a thing.[89] His observations were confirmed by the observatory of Christopher Clavius and he received a hero's welcome when he visited Rome in 1611.[90]Galileo continued to observe the satellites over the next eighteen months, and by mid-1611 he had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periods—a feat which Kepler had believed impossible.[91]
Venus, Saturn, and Neptune
From September 1610, Galileo observed that Venus exhibited a full set of phases similar to that of the Moon. The heliocentric model of the solar system developed by Nicolaus Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around theSun would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. On the other hand, in Ptolemy's geocentric model it was impossible for any of the planets' orbits to intersect the spherical shell carrying the Sun. Traditionally the orbit of Venus was placed entirely on the near side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only crescent and new phases. It was, however, also possible to place it entirely on the far side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only gibbous and full phases. After Galileo's telescopic observations of the crescent, gibbous and full phases of Venus, therefore, this Ptolemaic model became untenable. Thus in the early 17th century as a result of his discovery the great majority of astronomers converted to one of the various geo-heliocentric planetary models,[92] such as the Tychonic, Capellan and Extended Capellan models,[93] each either with or without a daily rotating Earth. These all had the virtue of explaining the phases of Venus without the vice of the 'refutation' of full heliocentrism's prediction of stellar parallax. Galileo's discovery of the phases of Venus was thus arguably his most empirically practically influential contribution to the two-stage transition from full geocentrism to full heliocentrism via geo-heliocentrism.
Galileo observed the planet Saturn, and at first mistook its rings for planets, thinking it was a three-bodied system. When he observed the planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented at Earth, causing him to think that two of the bodies had disappeared. The rings reappeared when he observed the planet in 1616, further confusing him.[94]
Galileo also observed the planet Neptune in 1612. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars. He did not realise that it was a planet, but he did note its motion relative to the stars before losing track of it.[95]
Sunspots
Galileo was one of the first Europeans to observe sunspots, although Kepler had unwittingly observed one in 1607, but mistook it for atransit of Mercury. He also reinterpreted a sunspot observation from the time of Charlemagne, which formerly had been attributed (impossibly) to a transit of Mercury. The very existence of sunspots showed another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens as posited in orthodox Aristotelian celestial physics. And the annual variations in sunspots' motions, discovered by Francesco Sizzi and others in 1612–1613,[96] provided a powerful argument against both the Ptolemaic system and the geoheliocentric system ofTycho Brahe.[97] A dispute over priority in the discovery of sunspots, and in their interpretation, led Galileo to a long and bitter feud with the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner; in fact, there is little doubt that both of them were beaten by David Fabricius and his son Johannes. Scheiner quickly adopted Kepler's 1615 proposal of the modern telescope design, which gave larger magnification at the cost of inverted images; Galileo apparently never changed to Kepler's design.
Moon
Prior to Galileo's construction of his version of a telescope, Thomas Harriot, an English mathematician and explorer, had already used what he dubbed a "perspective tube" to observe the moon. Reporting his observations, Harriot noted only "strange spottednesse" in the waning of the crescent, but was ignorant to the cause. Galileo, due in part to his artistic training[23] and the knowledge ofchiaroscuro,[22] had understood the patterns of light and shadow were in fact topological markers. While not being the only one to observe the moon through a telescope, Galileo was the first to deduce the cause of the uneven waning as light occlusion from lunarmountains and craters. In his study he also made topological charts, estimating the heights of the mountains. The moon was not what was long thought to have been a translucent and perfect sphere, as Aristotle claimed, and hardly the first "planet", an "eternal pearl to magnificently ascend into the heavenly empyrian", as put forth by Dante.
Milky Way and stars
Galileo observed the Milky Way, previously believed to be nebulous, and found it to be a multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared to be clouds from Earth. He located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye. He observed the double star Mizar in Ursa Major in 1617.[98]
In the Starry Messenger Galileo reported that stars appeared as mere blazes of light, essentially unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and contrasted them to planets, which the telescope revealed to be discs. But shortly thereafter, in his letters on sunspots, he reported that the telescope revealed the shapes of both stars and planets to be "quite round". From that point forward he continued to report that telescopes showed the roundness of stars, and that stars seen through the telescope measured a few seconds of arc in diameter.[99] He also devised a method for measuring the apparent size of a star without a telescope. As described in his Dialogue Concerning the two Chief World Systems, his method was to hang a thin rope in his line of sight to the star and measure the maximum distance from which it would wholly obscure the star. From his measurements of this distance and of the width of the rope he could calculate the angle subtended by the star at his viewing point.[100] In his Dialogue he reported that he had found the apparent diameter of a star of first magnitude to be no more than 5 arcseconds, and that of one of sixth magnitude to be about 5/6 arcseconds. Like most astronomers of his day, Galileo did not recognise that the apparent sizes of stars that he measured were spurious, caused by diffraction and atmospheric distortion (see seeing disk or Airy disk), and did not represent the true sizes of stars. However, Galileo's values were much smaller than previous estimates of the apparent sizes of the brightest stars, such as those made by Tycho Brahe(see Magnitude) and enabled Galileo to counter anti-Copernican arguments such as those made by Tycho that these stars would have to be absurdly large for their annual parallaxes to be undetectable.[101] Other astronomers such as Simon Marius, Giovanni Battista Riccioli, and Martinus Hortensius made similar measurements of stars, and Marius and Riccioli concluded the smaller sizes were not small enough to answer Tycho's argument.[102]
Technology
Galileo made a number of contributions to what is now known as technology, as distinct from pure physics. This is not the same distinction as made by Aristotle, who would have considered all Galileo's physics as techne or useful knowledge, as opposed to episteme, or philosophical investigation into the causes of things. Between 1595 and 1598, Galileo devised and improved a Geometric and Military Compass suitable for use by gunners andsurveyors. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by Niccolò Tartaglia andGuidobaldo del Monte. For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new and safer way of elevatingcannons accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of gunpowder for cannonballs of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular polygon, computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations. Under Galileo's direction, instrument maker Marc'Antonio Mazzoleniproduced more than 100 of these compasses, which Galileo sold (along with an instruction manual he wrote) for 50 lire and offered a course of instruction in the use of the compasses for 120 lire.[103]
In about 1593, Galileo constructed a thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube.
In 1609, Galileo was, along with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for Galileo's instrument by a Greek mathematician, Giovanni Demisiani,[104] at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo a member of his Accademia dei Lincei.[105] The name was derived from the Greek tele = 'far' and skopein = 'to look or see'. In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to magnify the parts of insects.[106] By 1624 Galileo had used[107] a compound microscope. He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for presentation to the Duke of Bavaria,[108] and in September he sent another to Prince Cesi.[109] The Linceans played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy member Giovanni Faber coined the word for Galileo's invention from the Greek words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at". The word was meant to be analogous with "telescope".[110][111] Illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes, and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the use of a compound microscope.[112]
In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of longitude. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life; but the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1681 and was later used extensively for large land surveys; this method, for example, was used to survey France, and later by Zebulon Pike of the midwestern United States in 1806. For sea navigation, where delicate telescopic observations were more difficult, the longitude problem eventually required development of a practical portable marine chronometer, such as that of John Harrison.[113] In his last year, when totally blind, he designed an escapement mechanism for a pendulum clock (called Galileo's escapement), a vectorial model of which may be seen here. The first fully operational pendulum clock was made by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s.
Physics
Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and René Descartes, was a precursor of the classical mechanics developed by Sir Isaac Newton. Galileo conducted several experiments withpendulums. It is popularly believed (thanks to the biography by Vincenzo Viviani) that these began by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse as a timer. Later experiments are described in his Two New Sciences. Galileo claimed that a simple pendulum is isochronous, i.e. that its swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the amplitude. In fact, this is only approximately true,[114] as was discovered by Christian Huygens. Galileo also found that the square of the period varies directly with the length of the pendulum. Galileo's son, Vincenzo, sketched a clock based on his father's theories in 1642. The clock was never built and, because of the large swings required by its verge escapement, would have been a poor timekeeper. (See Technologyabove.)
Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with, being one of the first to understand sound frequency. By scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of the sound produced to the spacing of the chisel's skips, a measure of frequency. In 1638 Galileo described an experimental method to measure the speed of light by arranging that two observers, each having lanterns equipped with shutters, observe each other's lanterns at some distance. The first observer opens the shutter of his lamp, and, the second, upon seeing the light, immediately opens the shutter of his own lantern. The time between the first observer's opening his shutter and seeing the light from the second observer's lamp indicates the time it takes light to travel back and forth between the two observers. Galileo reported that when he tried this at a distance of less than a mile, he was unable to determine whether or not the light appeared instantaneously.[115] Sometime between Galileo's death and 1667, the members of the Florentine Accademia del Cimento repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and obtained a similarly inconclusive result.[116] Galileo put forward the basic principle of relativity, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to Einstein's special theory of relativity.
Falling bodies
A biography by Galileo's pupil Vincenzo Viviani stated that Galileo had dropped balls of the same material, but different masses, from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass.[117] This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight.[118] While this story has been retold in popular accounts, there is no account by Galileo himself of such an experiment, and it is generally accepted by historians that it was at most a thought experiment which did not actually take place.[119] An exception is Drake,[120] who argues that the experiment did take place, more or less as Viviani described it. The experiment described was actually performed by Simon Stevin (commonly known as Stevinus),[21] although the building used was actually the church tower in Delft in 1586.[121]
In his 1638 Discorsi Galileo's character Salviati, widely regarded as Galileo's spokesman, held that all unequal weights would fall with the same finite speed in a vacuum. But this had previously been proposed by Lucretius[122] and Simon Stevin.[123] Cristiano Banti'sSalviati also held it could be experimentally demonstrated by the comparison of pendulum motions in air with bobs of lead and of cork which had different weight but which were otherwise similar.
Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum.[124] He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance travelled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time ( d ∝ t 2 ).[125] Prior to Galileo, Nicole Oresme, in the 14th century, had derived the times-squared law for uniformly accelerated change,[126] and Domingo de Soto had suggested in the 16th century that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be uniformly accelerated.[127] Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms). He also concluded that objectsretain their velocity unless a force—often friction—acts upon them, refuting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that objects "naturally" slow down and stop unless a force acts upon them (philosophical ideas relating to inertia had been proposed by John Philoponus centuries earlier, as had Jean Buridan, and according to Joseph Needham, Mo Tzu had proposed it centuries before either of them, but this was the first time that it had been mathematically expressed, verified experimentally, and introduced the idea offrictional force, the key breakthrough in validating inertia). Galileo's Principle of Inertia stated: "A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed." This principle was incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law).
Mathematics
While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day. The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the Eudoxian theory of proportion, as set forth in the fifth book of Euclid's Elements. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by Tartaglia and others; but by the end of Galileo's life it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of Descartes.
Galileo produced some mathematics: Galileo's paradox, which shows that there are as many perfect squares as there are whole numbers, even though most numbers are not perfect squares.
His writings
Galileo's early works describing scientific instruments include the 1586 tract entitled The Little Balance (La Billancetta) describing an accurate balance to weigh objects in air or water[128] and the 1606 printed manual Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare on the operation of a geometrical and military compass.[129]
His early works in dynamics, the science of motion and mechanics were his 1590 Pisan De Motu(On Motion) and his circa 1600 Paduan Le Meccaniche (Mechanics). The former was based on Aristotelian–Archimedean fluid dynamics and held that the speed of gravitational fall in a fluid medium was proportional to the excess of a body's specific weight over that of the medium, whereby in a vacuum bodies would fall with speeds in proportion to their specific weights. It also subscribed to the Hipparchan-Philoponan impetus dynamics in which impetus is self-dissipating and free-fall in a vacuum would have an essential terminal speed according to specific weight after an initial period of acceleration.
Galileo's 1610 The Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) was the first scientific treatise to be published based on observations made through a telescope. It reported his discoveries of:
- the Galilean moons;
- the roughness of the Moon's surface;
- the existence of a large number of stars invisible to the naked eye, particularly those responsible for the appearance of the Milky Way; and
- differences between the appearances of the planets and those of the fixed stars—the former appearing as small discs, while the latter appeared as unmagnified points of light.
Galileo published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled Letters on Sunspots[130] suggesting the Sun and heavens are corruptible. The Letters on Sunspots also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puzzling subsequent disappearance. In 1615 Galileo prepared a manuscript known as the Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina which was not published in printed form until 1636. This letter was a revised version of the Letter to Castelli, which was denounced by the Inquisition as an incursion upon theology by advocating Copernicanism both as physically true and as consistent with Scripture.[131] In 1616, after the order by the inquisition for Galileo not to hold or defend the Copernican position, Galileo wrote the Discourse on the tides (Discorso sul flusso e il reflusso del mare) based on the Copernican earth, in the form of a private letter to Cardinal Orsini.[132] In 1619, Mario Guiducci, a pupil of Galileo's, published a lecture written largely by Galileo under the title Discourse on the Comets (Discorso Delle Comete), arguing against the Jesuit interpretation of comets.[133]
In 1623, Galileo published The Assayer—Il Saggiatore, which attacked theories based on Aristotle's authority and promoted experimentation and the mathematical formulation of scientific ideas. The book was highly successful and even found support among the higher echelons of the Christian church.[134] Following the success of The Assayer, Galileo published the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) in 1632. Despite taking care to adhere to the Inquisition's 1616 instructions, the claims in the book favouring Copernican theory and a non Geocentric model of the solar system led to Galileo being tried and banned on publication. Despite the publication ban, Galileo published his Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) in 1638 in Holland, outside the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.
Summary of Galileo's published written works
Galileo's main written works are as follows:
- The Little Balance (1586)
- On Motion (1590)[135]
- Mechanics (ca. 1600)
- The Starry Messenger (1610; in Latin, Sidereus Nuncius)
- Discourse on Floating Bodies (1612)
- Letters on Sunspots (1613)
- Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (1615; published in 1636)
- Discourse on the Tides (1616; in Italian, Discorso del flusso e reflusso del mare)
- Discourse on the Comets (1619; in Italian, Discorso Delle Comete)
- The Assayer (1623; in Italian, Il Saggiatore)
- Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632; in Italian Dialogo dei due massimi sistemi del mondo)
- Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638; in Italian, Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze)
Legacy
Church reassessments of Galileo in later centuries
The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence.[136] In 1741 Pope Benedict XIV authorised the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works[137] which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue.[138] In 1758 the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of prohibited books, although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained.[139] All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index.[140]
In 1939 Pope Pius XII, in his first speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, within a few months of his election to the papacy, described Galileo as being among the "most audacious heroes of research... not afraid of the stumbling blocks and the risks on the way, nor fearful of the funereal monuments".[141] His close advisor of 40 years, Professor Robert Leiber wrote: "Pius XII was very careful not to close any doors (to science) prematurely. He was energetic on this point and regretted that in the case of Galileo."[142]
On 15 February 1990, in a speech delivered at the Sapienza University of Rome,[143] Cardinal Ratzinger (later to become Pope Benedict XVI) cited some current views on the Galileo affair as forming what he called "a symptomatic case that permits us to see how deep the self-doubt of the modern age, of science and technology goes today".[144] Some of the views he cited were those of the philosopher Paul Feyerabend, whom he quoted as saying "The Church at the time of Galileo kept much more closely to reason than did Galileo himself, and she took into consideration the ethical and social consequences of Galileo's teaching too. Her verdict against Galileo was rational and just and the revision of this verdict can be justified only on the grounds of what is politically opportune."[144] The Cardinal did not clearly indicate whether he agreed or disagreed with Feyerabend's assertions. He did, however, say "It would be foolish to construct an impulsive apologetic on the basis of such views."[144]
On 31 October 1992, Pope John Paul II expressed regret for how the Galileo affair was handled, and issued a declaration acknowledging the errors committed by the Catholic Church tribunal that judged the scientific positions of Galileo Galilei, as the result of a study conducted by the Pontifical Council for Culture.[145][146] In March 2008 the head of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Nicola Cabibbo, announced a plan to honour Galileo by erecting a statue of him inside the Vatican walls.[147] In December of the same year, during events to mark the 400th anniversary of Galileo's earliest telescopic observations, Pope Benedict XVI praised his contributions to astronomy.[148] A month later, however, the head of the Pontifical Council for Culture, Gianfranco Ravasi, revealed that the plan to erect a statue of Galileo in the grounds of the Vatican had been suspended.[149]
Impact on modern science
According to Stephen Hawking, Galileo probably bears more of the responsibility for the birth of modern science than anybody else,[150]and Albert Einstein called him the father of modern science.[151][152]
Galileo's astronomical discoveries and investigations into the Copernican theory have led to a lasting legacy which includes the categorisation of the four large moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) as the Galilean moons. Other scientific endeavours and principles are named after Galileo including the Galileo spacecraft,[153] the first spacecraft to enter orbit around Jupiter, the proposed Galileo global satellite navigation system, the transformation between inertial systems in classical mechanics denoted Galilean transformation and the Gal (unit), sometimes known as the Galileo which is a non-SI unit of acceleration.
Partly because 2009 was the fourth centenary of Galileo's first recorded astronomical observations with the telescope, the United Nations scheduled it to be the International Year of Astronomy.[154] A global scheme was laid out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), also endorsed byUNESCO—the UN body responsible for Educational, Scientific and Cultural matters. TheInternational Year of Astronomy 2009 was intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general, with a particular slant towards young people.
Asteroid 697 Galilea is named in his honour.
In artistic and popular media
Galileo is mentioned several times in the "opera" section of the Queen song, "Bohemian Rhapsody".[155] He features prominently in the song "Galileo" performed by the Indigo Girls.
Twentieth-century plays have been written on Galileo's life, including Life of Galileo (1943) by the German playwright Bertolt Brecht, with a film adaptation (1975) of it, and Lamp At Midnight (1947) by Barrie Stavis,[156] as well as the 2008 play "Galileo Galilei".[157]
Kim Stanley Robinson wrote a science fiction novel entitled Galileo's Dream (2009), in which Galileo is brought into the future to help resolve a crisis of scientific philosophy; the story moves back and forth between Galileo's own time and a hypothetical distant future, and contains a great deal of biographical information.[158]
Galileo Galilei was recently selected as a main motif for a high value collectors' coin: the €25 International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin, minted in 2009. This coin also commemorates the 400th anniversary of the invention of Galileo's telescope. The obverse shows a portion of his portrait and his telescope. The background shows one of his first drawings of the surface of the moon. In the silver ring other telescopes are depicted: the Isaac Newton Telescope, the observatory in Kremsmünster Abbey, a modern telescope, a radio telescope and a space telescope. In 2009, the Galileoscope was also released. This is a mass-produced, low-cost educational 2-inch (51 mm) telescope with relatively high quality.
Timeline
- 1543 – Nicolaus Copernicus publishes De revolutionibus orbium coelestium as an alternative world system to the Ptolemy'sgeocentric model causing subsequent questions to be raised about Aristotelian physics following Copernicus' death
- 1563 – Parents Vincenzo Galilei and Giulia Ammannati marry
- 1564 – Birth in Pisa, Italy
- ~1570 – Thomas Digges publishes Pantometria describing a telescope built between 1540–1559 by his father Leonard Digges
- 1573 – Tycho Brahe publishes De nova stella (On the new star) refuting Aristotelian belief in immutable celestial spheres and an eternal, unchanging, more perfect heavenly realm of celestial aether above the moon
- 1576 – Giuseppe Moletti Galileo's predecessor in the mathematics chair at Padua, reports falling bodies of the same shape fall at the same speed, regardless of material[159]
- 1581 – His father, Vincenzo Galilei publishes Dialogo della musica antica et moderna formulating musical theories[160]
- 1581 – Enrols as medical student at University of Pisa
- 1582 – Attends mathematics lecture by Ostilio Ricci and decides to study math and science
- 1585 – Leaves University of Pisa without degree and works as tutor
- 1586 – Invents hydrostatic balance; wrote La Balancitta (The little balance)
- 1586 – Simon Stevin publishes results for dropping lead weights from 10 meters
- 1588 – Tycho Brahe publishes work on comets containing a description of the Tychonic system of the world[161]
- 1589 – Appointed to Mathematics Chair, University of Pisa
- 1590 – Partially completes De Motu (On Motion), which is never published
- 1591 – Death of his father, Vicenzo Galilei
- 1592 – Appointed professor of mathematics at University of Padua, remains 18 years
- ~1593 – Invents early thermometer that unfortunately depended on both temperature and pressure
- ~1595 – Invents improved ballistics calculation geometric and military compass, which he later improves for surveying and general calculations and earns income from tutoring on its use
- 1597 – Letter to Kepler indicates his belief in the Copernican System
- 1600 – First child, Virginia is born; ~1600 Le Meccaniche (Mechanics)
- 1600 – William Gilbert publishes On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on That Great Magnet the Earth with arguments supporting the Copernican system
- 1600 – Roman Inquisition finds Giordano Bruno, Copernican system supporter, guilty of heresy for opinions on pantheism and the eternal plurality of worlds, and for denial of the Trinity, divinity of Christ, virginity of Mary, and Transubstantiation; burned at the stake by civil authorities
- 1601 – Daughter Livia is born
- 1604 – Measures supernova position indicating no parallax for the new star
- 1605 – Sued by brothers-in-law for nonpayment of sisters' dowries
- 1606 – Son Vincenzo born
- 1606 – Publishes manual for his calculating compass
- 1607 – Rotilio Orlandini attempts to assassinate Galileo's friend, Friar Paolo Sarpi
- 1608 – Hans Lippershey invents a refracting telescope
- 1609 – Independently invents and improves telescopes based on description of invention by Hans Lippershey
- 1609 – Kepler publishes Astronomia nova containing his first two laws and for the first time demonstrates the Copernican model is more accurate than the Ptolemaic for uses such as navigation and prediction
- 1609 – Thomas Harriot sketches the Moon from telescopic observations made four months before Galileo's
- 1610 – Publishes Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger); views our moon's mountains and craters and brightest 4 of Jupiter's moons
- 1610 - Martin Horky publishes Brevissima Peregrinatio Contra Nuncium Sidereum, opposing Galileo
- 1610 – Kepler requests one of Galileo's telescopes or lenses, but Galileo replies he is too busy to build one and has no extras[162]
- 1610 – Lifetime appointment to mathematics position at University of Padua, and as mathematician and philosopher for Cosimo II, Grand Duke of Tuscany
- 1611 – Discovers phases of Venus; granted audience with Pope; made member of Lincean Academy
- 1611 – David Fabricius publishes Narration on Spots Observed on the Sun and their Apparent Rotation with the Sun prior toChristoph Scheiner and Galileo's published works on the subject
- 1612 – Proposed Jupiter's moons could be used as a universal clock for possible determination of longitude
- ~1612 or 1613 – Francesco Sizzi discovers annual variations in sunspots' motions
- 1613 – Letters on Sunspots
- 1615 – Letter to Grand Duchess Christina (not published until 1636)
- 1616 – Officially warned by the Church not to hold or defend the Copernican System
- 1616 – The Catholic Church places De revolutionibus orbium coelestium on the List of Prohibited Books
- 1616 – Private letter Discourse on the Tides
- 1617 – Moves into Bellosguardo, west of Florence, near his daughters' convent; observes double star Mizar in Ursa Major
- 1619 – Kepler publishes Harmonices Mundi which introduces his third law
- 1619 – Discourse on the Comets
- 1621 – Maffeo Barberini becomes Pope Urban VIII
- 1623 – Publishes The Assayer
- 1624 – Visits Pope who praises and honours him, leaving with assumed permission to publish work on the Copernican vs.Ptolemaic Systems; used a compound microscope
- 1625 – Illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes published
- 1630 – Completes Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems and subsequently receives approval of Church censor
- 1632 – Publishes Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
- 1633 – sentenced by the Inquisition to imprisonment, commuted to house arrest, for vehement suspicion of heresy
- 1633 – Catholic Church places Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems on the List of Prohibited Books
- 1638 – Publishes Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences
- 1642 – death in Arcetri, Italy
- 1668 – Newton builds his reflecting telescope
- 1687 – Isaac Newton publishes Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica deriving Kepler's laws from the Universal Law of Gravitation and the Laws of Motion, uniting the heavens and earth under the same natural laws
See also
- Catholic Church and science
- Galileo affair
- Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina
- Villa Il Gioiello (Galileo's main home in Florence)
Notes
- ^ a b c d e f O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. "Galileo Galilei".The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. University of St Andrews, Scotland. Retrieved 2007-07-24.
- ^ F. Vinci, Ostilio Ricci da Fermo, Maestro di Galileo Galilei, Fermo, 1929.
- ^ NODAK.edu
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 1). The date of Galileo's birth is given according to the Julian calendar, which was then in force throughout the whole of Christendom. In 1582 it was replaced in Italy and several other Catholic countries with the Gregorian calendar. Unless otherwise indicated, dates in this article are given according to the Gregorian calendar.
- ^
"Galileo Galilei" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia. by John Gerard. Retrieved 11 August 2007
- ^ Singer, Charles (1941). A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century. Clarendon Press. p. 217.
- ^ a b Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse. p. 155. ISBN 0-595-36877-8.
- ^ Finocchiaro (2007).
- ^ a b c d Isabelle Pantin (1999), "New Philosophy and Old Prejudices: Aspects of the Reception of Copernicanism in a Divided Europe", Stud. Hist. Phil. Sci. 30: 237–262
- ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 127–131), McMullin (2005a).
- ^ Finocchiaro (1997), p. 47.
- ^ Hilliam (2005), p. 96.
- ^ a b c Carney, Jo Eldridge (2000). Renaissance and Reformation, 1500–1620: a. Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN 0-313-30574-9.
- ^ a b Allan-Olney (1870)
- ^ John Gribbon. The Fellowship: Gilbert, Bacon, Harvey, Wren, Newton and the Story of the Scientific Revolution. The Overlook Press, 2008. p. 26
- ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 17, 213)
- ^ John Gribbon. The Fellowship: Gilbert, Bacon, Harvey, Wren, Newton and the Story of the Scientific Revolution. The Overlook Press, 2008. p. 42
- ^ Sobel (2000, p. 5) Chapter 1. Retrieved on 26 August 2007. "But because he never married Virginia's mother, he deemed the girl herself unmarriageable. Soon after her 13th birthday, he placed her at the Convent of San Matteo in Arcetri."
- ^ Pedersen, O. (24–27 May 1984). "Galileo's Religion".Proceedings of the Cracow Conference, The Galileo affair: A meeting of faith and science. Cracow: Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co. pp. 75–102. Bibcode:1985gamf.conf...75P.
- ^ Reston (2000, pp. 3–14).
- ^ a b c Asimov, Isaac (1964). Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. ISBN 978-0385177719
- ^ a b Edgerton, Samuel Y. The Mirror, the Window, and the Telescope, 2009
- ^ a b Panofsky, Erwin (1956). "Galileo as a Critic of the Arts: Aesthetic Attitude and Scientific Thought". Isis 47 (1): 3–15.doi:10.1086/348450. JSTOR 227542.
- ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 45–66).
- ^ Rutkin, H. Darrel. "Galileo, Astrology, and the Scientific Revolution: Another Look". Program in History & Philosophy of Science & Technology, Stanford University. Retrieved 2007-04-15.
- ^ Finocchiaro (1989), pp. 67–9.
- ^ Finocchiaro (1989), p. 354, n. 52
- ^ Finocchiaro (1989), pp. 119–133
- ^ Finocchiaro (1989), pp. 127–131 and Galilei, (1953), pp. 432–6
- ^ Einstein (1953) p. xvii
- ^ Galilei, (1953), p. 462.
- ^ Kusukawa, Sachiko. "Starry Messenger: The Telescope". Department of History and Philosophy of Science of the University of Cambridge. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
- ^ Drake (1960, pp.vii, xxiii–xxiv), Sharratt (1994, pp. 139–140).
- ^ Grassi (1960a).
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 268), Grassi (1960a, p. 16).
- ^ Galilei & Guiducci (1960).
- ^ Drake (1957, p. 222), Drake (1960, p.xvii).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, p. 135), Drake (1960, p.xii), Galilei & Guiducci (1960, p. 24).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, p. 135).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, p. 135), Drake (1960, p.xvii).
- ^ Grassi (1960b).
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 494), Favaro(1896, 6:111). The pseudonym was a slightly imperfect anagram of Oratio Grasio Savonensis, a latinised version of his name and home town.
- ^ Galilei (1960).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, p. 137), Drake (1957, p. 227).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, p. 138–142).
- ^ Drake (1960, p.xix).
- ^ Drake (1960, p.vii).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, p. 175).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 175–78), Blackwell (2006, p. 30).
- ^ Brodrick (1965, c1964, p. 95) quoting Cardinal Bellarmine'sletter to Foscarini, dated 12 April 1615. Translated from Favaro(1902, 12:171–172) (Italian).
- ^ Galileo Galilei – New Mexico Museum of Space History. Retrieved 26 August 2011.
- ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 126–31).
- ^ "Galileo Project – Pope Urban VIII Biography".
- ^ Sobel (2000, pp. 232–4).
- ^ Finocchiaro (1997), p. 82; Moss & Wallace (2003), p. 11
- ^ See Langford (1966, pp. 133–134), and Seeger (1966, p. 30), for example. Drake (1978, p. 355) asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers, Lodovico delle Colombe and Cesare Cremonini, rather than Urban. He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the Dialogue left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio (Drake, 1953, p. 491). EvenArthur Koestler, who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in The Sleepwalkers (1959), after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue" (1959, p. 483).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 171–75); Heilbron (2010, pp. 308–17); Gingerich (1992, pp. 117–18).
- ^ Fantoli (2005, p. 139), Finocchiaro (1989, pp. 288–293). Finocchiaro's translation of the Inquisition's judgement against Galileo is available on-line. "Vehemently suspect of heresy" was a technical term of canon law and did not necessarily imply that the Inquisition considered the opinions giving rise to the verdict to be heretical. The same verdict would have been possible even if the opinions had been subject only to the less serious censure of "erroneous in faith" (Fantoli, 2005, p. 140;Heilbron, 2005, pp. 282–284).
- ^ Finocchiaro (1989, pp.38, 291, 306). Finocchiaro's translation of the Inquisition's judgement against Galileo isavailable on-line.
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 367), Sharratt (1994, p. 184), Favaro(1905, 16:209, 230)(Italian). See Galileo affair for further details.
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 356). The phrase "Eppur si muove" does appear, however, in a painting of the 1640s by the Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo or an artist of his school. The painting depicts an imprisoned Galileo apparently pointing to a copy of the phrase written on the wall of his dungeon (Drake, 1978, p. 357).
- ^ William Shea, M. A. The Galileo Affair 2006. Available onlineWilliam Shea (January 2006). "The Galileo Affair". Grupo de Investigación sobre Ciencia, Razón y Fe (CRYF). Unpublished work. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
- ^ Stephen Hawking, ed. p. 398, On the Shoulders of Giants: "Galileo ... is the father of modern physics—indeed of modernscience"—Albert Einstein.
- ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p. 199); Sobel (2000, p. 378).
- ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p. 199); Sobel (2000, p. 378); Sharratt (1994, p. 207); Favaro(1906,18:378–80) (Italian).
- ^ Monumental tomb of Galileo. Institute and Museum of the History of Science, Florence, Italy. Retrieved 2010-02-15.
- ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p. 199); Sobel (2000, p. 380).
- ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p. 200); Sobel (2000, pp. 380–384).
- ^ Section of Room VII Galilean iconography and relics, Museo Galileo. Accessed on line 27 May 2011.
- ^ Middle finger of Galileo's right hand, Museo Galileo. Accessed on line 27 May 2011.
- ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 204–05)
- ^ Cohen, H. F. (1984). Quantifying Music: The Science of Music at. Springer. pp. 78–84. ISBN 90-277-1637-4.
- ^ Field, Judith Veronica (2005). Piero Della Francesca: A Mathematician's Art. Yale University Press. pp. 317–320.ISBN 0-300-10342-5.
- ^ In Drake (1957, pp. 237–238)
- ^ Wallace, (1984).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 202–04), Galilei (1954, pp. 250–52),Favaro (1898), 8:274–75 (Italian)
- ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 202–04), Galilei (1954, pp. 252), Favaro (1898), 8:275 (Italian)
- ^ King (2003, pp.30–32). The Netherlands States-General would not grant Lippershey his requested patent (King, 2003, p.32).
- ^ Drake (1990, pp. 133–34).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 1–2)
- ^ 1964, p. 273
- ^ According to Walusinsky (1964, p. 273), it "aroused the life-long enmity of all the opponents of modern science"
- ^ i.e., invisible to the naked eye.
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 146).
- ^ In Sidereus Nuncius (Favaro,1892, 3:81(Latin)) Galileo stated that he had reached this conclusion on 11 January.Drake (1978, p. 152), however, after studying unpublished manuscript records of Galileo's observations, concluded that he did not do so until 15 January.
- ^ Sharratt (1994, p. 17).
- ^ Linton (2004, pp. 98,205), Drake (1978, p. 157).
- ^ Drake (1978, pp. 158–68), Sharratt (1994, pp. 18–19).
- ^ God's Philosophers ju James Hannam Orion 2009 p313
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 168), Sharratt (1994, p. 93).
- ^ Thoren (1989), p. 8; Hoskin (1999) p. 117.
- ^ In the Capellan model only Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun, whilst in its extended version such as expounded by Riccioli, Mars also orbits the Sun, but the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn are centred on the Earth
- ^ Baalke, Ron. Historical Background of Saturn's Rings. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, NASA. Retrieved on 2007-03-11
- ^ Drake & Kowal (1980)
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 209). Sizzi reported the observations he and his companions had made over the course of a year to Orazio Morandi in a letter dated 10 April 1613 (Favaro,1901, 11:491(Italian)). Morandi subsequently forwarded a copy to Galileo.
- ^ In geostatic systems the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots could only be explained as the result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation(Linton, 2004, p. 212; Sharratt, 1994, p. 166; Drake, 1970, pp. 191–196). This did not apply, however, to the modified version of Tycho's system introduced by his protegé, Longomontanus, in which the Earth was assumed to rotate. Longomontanus's system could account for the apparent motions of sunspots just as well as the Copernican.
- ^ Ondra (2004), p. 72–73
- ^ Graney (2010, p. 455); Graney & Grayson (2011, p. 353).
- ^ Van Helden, (1985, p. 75); Chalmers, (1999, p. 25);Galilei (1953, pp. 361–62).
- ^ Finocchiaro (1989, pp. 167–76), Galilei (1953, pp. 359–60),Ondra (2004, pp. 74–5).
- ^ Graney (2010, p. 454-462); Graney & Grayson (2011, p. 352-355).
- ^ Reston (2000, p. 56).
- ^ Sobel (2000, p. 43), Drake (1978, p. 196). In the Starry Messenger, written in Latin, Galileo had used the term "perspicillum".
- ^ Rosen, Edward, The Naming of the Telescope (1947)
- ^ Drake (1978, pp. 163–164), Favaro(1892, 3:163–164)(Latin)
- ^ Probably in 1623, according to Drake (1978, p. 286).
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 289), Favaro(1903, 13:177) (Italian).
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 286), Favaro(1903, 13:208)(Italian). The actual inventors of the telescope and microscope remain debatable. A general view on this can be found in the articleHans Lippershey (last updated 2003-08-01), © 1995–2007 by Davidson, Michael W. and the Florida State University. Retrieved 2007-08-28
- ^ "brunelleschi.imss.fi.it "Il microscopio di Galileo"" (PDF).
- ^ Van Helden, Al. Galileo Timeline (last updated 1995), The Galileo Project. Retrieved 2007-08-28. See also Timeline of microscope technology.
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 286).
- ^ Longitude: the true story of a lone genius who solved the greatest scientific problem of his time, Dava Sobel Penguin, 1996 ISBN 0-14-025879-5, ISBN 978-0-14-025879-0
- ^ Newton, R. G. (2004). Galileo's Pendulum: From the Rhythm of Time to the Making of Matter. Harvard University Press. p. 51.ISBN 0-674-01331-X.
- ^ Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1974) p. 50.
- ^ I. Bernard Cohen, "Roemer and the First Determination of the Velocity of Light (1676)", Isis, 31 (1940): 327–379, see pp. 332–333
- ^ Drake (1978, pp. 19,20). At the time when Viviani asserts that the experiment took place, Galileo had not yet formulated the final version of his law of free fall. He had, however, formulated an earlier version which predicted that bodies of the same material falling through the same medium would fall at the same speed (Drake, 1978, p. 20).
- ^ Drake (1978, p. 9); Sharratt (1994, p. 31).
- ^ Groleau, Rick. "Galileo's Battle for the Heavens. July 2002".Ball, Phil (2005-06-30). "Science history: setting the record straight. 30 June 2005". The Hindu (Chennai, India).
- ^ Drake (1978, pp. 19–21, 414–416)
- ^ Galileo Galilei: The Falling Bodies Experiment. Last accessed 26 Dec 2011.
- ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura II, 225–229; Relevant passage appears in: Lane Cooper, Aristotle, Galileo, and the Tower of Pisa (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1935), p. 49.
- ^ Simon Stevin, De Beghinselen des Waterwichts, Anvang der Waterwichtdaet, en de Anhang komen na de Beghinselen der Weeghconst en de Weeghdaet [The Elements of Hydrostatics, Preamble to the Practice of Hydrostatics, and Appendix to The Elements of the Statics and The Practice of Weighing] (Leiden, Netherlands: Christoffel Plantijn, 1586) reports an experiment by Stevin and Jan Cornets de Groot in which they dropped lead balls from a church tower in Delft; relevant passage is translated in: E. J. Dijksterhuis, ed., The Principal Works of Simon Stevin Amsterdam, Netherlands: C. V. Swets & Zeitlinger, 1955 vol. 1, pp. 509, 511.
- ^ Sharratt (1994, p. 203), Galilei (1954, pp. 251–54).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, p. 198), Galilei (1954, p. 174).
- ^ Clagett (1968, p. 561). Oresme, however, regarded this discovery as a purely intellectual exercise having no relevance to the description of any natural phenomena, and consequently failed to recognise any connection with the motion of falling bodies (Grant, 1996, p.103).
- ^ Sharratt (1994, p. 198), Wallace (2004, pp.II 384, II 400, III 272) Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in Galileo's theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as Galileo did, that a body would only fall with a strictly uniform acceleration in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity.
- ^ Hydrostatic balance. The Galileo Project. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
- ^ The Works of Galileo. The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
- ^ Sunspots and Floating Bodies. The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
- ^ Galileo, Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina. The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
- ^ Galileo's Theory of the Tides. The Galileo Project. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
- ^ Galileo Timeline. The Galileo Project. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
- ^ Galileo Galilei. Tel-Aviv University, Science and Technology Education Center. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
- ^ "Collection of Galileo Galilei's Manuscripts and Related Translations". Retrieved 2009-12-04.
- ^ Heilbron (2005, p. 299).
- ^ Two of his non-scientific works, the letters to Castelli and the Grand Duchess Christina, were explicitly not allowed to be included (Coyne 2005, p. 347).
- ^ Heilbron (2005, pp. 303–04); Coyne (2005, p. 347). The uncensored version of the Dialogue remained on the Index of prohibited books, however (Heilbron 2005, p. 279).
- ^ Heilbron (2005, p. 307); Coyne (2005, p. 347) The practical effect of the ban in its later years seems to have been that clergy could publish discussions of heliocentric physics with a formal disclaimer assuring its hypothetical character and their obedience to the church decrees against motion of the earth: see for example the commented edition (1742) of Newton's 'Principia' by Fathers Le Seur and Jacquier, which contains such a disclaimer ('Declaratio') before the third book (Propositions 25 onwards) dealing with the lunar theory.
- ^ McMullin (2005, p. 6); Coyne (2005, p. 346). In fact, the Church's opposition had effectively ended in 1820 when a Catholic canon, Giuseppe Settele, was given permission to publish a work which treated heliocentism as a physical fact rather than a mathematical fiction. The 1835 edition of the Index was the first to be issued after that year.
- ^ Discourse of His Holiness Pope Pius XII given on 3 December 1939 at the Solemn Audience granted to the Plenary Session of the Academy, Discourses of the Popes from Pius XI to John Paul II to the Pontifical Academy of the Sciences 1939–1986, Vatican City, p. 34
- ^ Robert Leiber, Pius XII Stimmen der Zeit, November 1958 in Pius XII. Sagt, Frankfurt 1959, p. 411
- ^ An earlier version had been delivered on 16 December 1989, in Rieti, and a later version in Madrid on 24 February 1990(Ratzinger, 1994, p. 81). According to Feyerabend himself, Ratzinger had also mentioned him "in support of" his own views in a speech in Parma around the same time (Feyerabend, 1995, p. 178).
- ^ a b c Ratzinger (1994, p. 98).
- ^ "Vatican admits Galileo was right". New Scientist (1846). 1992-11-07. Retrieved 2007-08-09..
- ^ "Papal visit scuppered by scholars". BBC News. 2008-01-15. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
- ^ Owen & Delaney (2008).
- ^ "Pope praises Galileo's astronomy". BBC News. 2008-12-21. Retrieved 2008-12-22.
- ^ Owen (2009).
- ^ Hawking (1988, p. 179).
- ^ Einstein (1954, p. 271). "Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality. Because Galileo realised this, and particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of modern physics—indeed, of modern science altogether."
- ^ Stephen Hawking, Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science, American Heritage's Invention & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36
- ^ Fischer, Daniel (2001). Mission Jupiter: The Spectacular Journey of the Galileo Spacecraft. Springer. pp. v. ISBN 0-387-98764-9.
- ^ United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (11 August 2005). "Proclamation of 2009 as International year of Astronomy" (PDF). UNESCO. Retrieved 2008-06-10.
- ^ Bohemian Rhapsody. everything2. Retrieved 2010-08-20.
- ^ Stavis, Barrie. Lamp at Midnight. South Brunswick, New Jersey: A.S. Barnes, 1966.
- ^ Lalonde, Robert. Galileo Galilei/Vesalius and Servetus. February 2008. ISBN 978-0-9783909-1-4.
- ^ Robinson, Kim Stanley (2009). Galileo's Dream. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-553-80659-5.
- ^ Giuseppe Moleti, Walter Roy Laird. The unfinished mechanics of Giuseppe Moletti. University of Toronto Press, 1999. p. 5
- ^ Robert Henry Herman, Vincenzo Galilei. Dialogo della musica antica et della moderna of Vincenzo Galilei: translation and commentary, Part 1. North Texas State University, 1973. p. 17
- ^ Adam, Mosley. "Tycho Brahe". Starry Messenger. History & Philosophy of Science Dept, University of Cambridge. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
- ^ Timothy Ferris. Coming of Age in the Milky Way. William Morrow & Company, Inc. 1988. p. 95
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- Van Helden, Albert (1985). Measuring the Universe: Cosmic Dimensions from Aristarchus to Halley. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-84881-7.
- Wallace, William A. (1984) Galileo and His Sources: The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science, (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Pr.), ISBN 0-691-08355-X
- Wallace, William A. (2004). Domingo de Soto and the Early Galileo. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-86078-964-0.
- Walusinsky, G. (1964) [1958]. The Golden age of Observational Astronomy. In Taton (1964, pp. 268–286).
- White, Andrew Dickson (1898). A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom. New York: D. Appleton and Company.ISBN 0-7905-8168-X.
- White, Michael (2007). Galileo: Antichrist: A Biography. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-84868-4.
- Wisan, Winifred Lovell (1984). "Galileo and the Process of Scientific Creation". Isis 75 (2): 269–286. doi:10.1086/353480.
- Zik, Yaakov (2001). "Science and Instruments: The telescope as a scientific instrument at the beginning of the seventeenth century".Perspectives on Science 9 (3): 259–284. doi:10.1162/10636140160176143.
External links
| Find more about Galileo Galilei at Wikipedia's sister projects | |
 | Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
 | Media from Commons |
 | Quotations from Wikiquote |
 | Source texts from Wikisource |
 | Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- Works by or about Galileo Galilei in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
By Galileo
- Electronic representation of Galilei's notes on motion (MS. 72)
- Galileo's 1590 De Motu translation
- Works by Galileo Galilei: text with concordances and frequencies.
- Galilei, Galileo. Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare 1610 Rome. FromRare Book Room. Scanned first edition.
- Galilei, Galileo. Istoria e Dimostrazioni Intorno Alle Macchie Solar 1613 Rome. From Rare Book Room. Scanned first edition.
- Linda Hall Library features a first edition of Sidereus Nuncius Magna as well as a pirated edition from the same year, both fully digitised.
- Sidereus Nuncius From the Collections at the Library of Congress
On Galileo
- Starry Messenger: Observing the Heavens in the Age of Galileo—an exhibition at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University
- Museo Galileo—Florence, Italy
- Galileo's math genealogy
- Portraits of Galileo
- The Galileo Project at Rice University
- PBS documentary: 400 Years of the Telescope
- Feather & Hammer Drop on Moon
- article by UK journalist on proposed disinterment to determine Galileo's eyesight problems
- "Galileo, The Starry Messenger" (NYT, January 18, 2013).
Biography
- PBS Nova Online: Galileo's Battle for the Heavens
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Galileo
- Animated Hero Classics: Galileo (1997) at the Internet Movie Database
- O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Galileo Galilei", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.
Galileo and the Church
- Galileo Galilei, Scriptural Exegete, and the Church of Rome, Advocate of Science lecture (audio here) by Thomas Aquinas College tutor Dr. Christopher Decaen
- "The End of the Myth of Galileo Galilei" by Atila Sinke Guimarães
- Galileo and the Church, article by John Heilbron.
- Galileo Affair catholic.net
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- 1564 births
- 1642 deaths
- 16th-century Italian mathematicians
- 17th-century Italian mathematicians
- 17th-century astronomers
- 17th-century Latin-language writers
- Ballistics experts
- Blind academics
- Blind people from Italy
- Christian astrologers
- Discoverers of moons
- Experimental physicists
- Galileo Galilei
- Italian astrologers
- Italian astronomers
- Italian inventors
- Italian physicists
- Italian Roman Catholics
- Natural philosophers
- People from Pisa
- Philosophers of science
- Scientific instrument makers
- Theoretical physicists
- University of Pisa alumni
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